Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001) / Chapter Skim
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From page 729... ...
Inclex A Abortions, spontaneous, 248 Absorption of nutrients. See also Bioavailability of nutrients; Malabsorption syndromes; individual nutrients adults, 40, 86, 474, 479 and adverse effects, 73 aging and, 40, 86, 146, 474 ascorbic acid interactions, 311-312, 521 assessment methods, 445, 455, 472 calcium interactions, 455-456 carotenoids, 86-93, 107 dietary fat and, 70, 106-107, 118, 121, 163 foods affecting, 521 form of intake and, 267, 373, 395, 483 form of nutrient and, 73 n.2, 87, 88-89, 227-228, 455-456, 529 fractional, 15, 447-448, 449, 450, 462, 463, 464-465, 468, 469, 472, 473, 474, 476, 478, 572 gender and, 402 human milk vs infant formula, 238, 404 infections and, 107 interaction of nutrients and, 70, 106107, 118, 121, 163, 311-312, 455456, 482-483 interindividual variation in, 69, 397, 402 729 intestinal environment and, 311-312, 454-455 lactation and, 244 level of intakes and, 242, 399, 422, 445, 473 menaquinones, 164 phytates and, 572, 576 pregnancy and, 243 processing of foods and, 107, 112, 146, 174, 211 solubility of compound and, 504 Aceruloplasminemia, 227, 377 Achlorhydria, 311 Achromotrichia, 435 Acid phosphatase activity, 529 Acrodermatitis enteropathica, 445, 477 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
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See also Life-stage groups; Men; Women; individual nutrients AIs, 34-35, 562-563 balance studies, 309-310, 405-406, 428429 biochemical indicators, 239-240 bone mineral density, 126-128 depletion/repletion studies, 224, 228, 229, 231, 232, 239-240, 430 EARs, 52 energy expenditure, 40 factorial analysis, 240-242, 340 hyperthyroidism, 283 hypothyroidism, 283 peak bone mass, 40 reference weights and heights, 41, 114 supplement use, 246, 278 thyroid iodine accumulation and turnover, 273-274 Adults, ages 51+ years. See also Life-stage groups; individual nutrients AIs, 40 absorption of nutrients, 40, 86, 474, 479 y-carboxyglutamyl excretion, 167 dietary intakes, 186 EARs, 40 energy expenditure, 40 energy needs, 209 institutionalized, 171 nickel, 523 physical activity, 40 physiological functioning, 40 renal function, 40, 69 silicon, 532 vanadium, 533, 534 vegetarian diets, 479-480 vitamin K, 166, 167, 182, 186 zinc, 451, 474-475, 479, 559, 562 Adverse effects.
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; Lifestage groups; individual life stages and absorption of nutrients, 40, 86, 146, 474 and adverse effects of nutrients, 508 and bone mineral density, 40 and y-carboxyglutamyl residues, 167 and chromium concentrations, 200 food consumption and, 47, 186 and glucose tolerance, 209 and iodine requirements, 274 and liver function, 69 and PIVKA-II, 168 and plasma phylloquinone, 166 and vitamin K, 166, 167, 168, 170 Albumin, 227, 260, 395, 445, 446, 454, 473, 474, 522 Alcohol consumption and alcoholism chromium and, 215 iron and, 302, 376 serum ferritin and, 302 special considerations, 118, 145, 376377, 480 and superoxide dismutase activity, 231, 401 vitamin A, 109, 118, 128, 133, 134-139, 145 zinc and, 475, 480 Aldehyde oxidase, 420 Alkaline phosphatase activity, 443, 453, 477, 529 Alopecia, 477, 514 Aluminum, 200 Alzheimer's disease, 532 Amenorrhea, 372 American Academy of Pediatrics, 37, 50, 51, 97, 317 oc-Amidating monooxygenase, 225 Amine oxidases, 224-225 Amino acid metabolism, 13, 44, 204, 394, 420-421, 446 Amiodarone, 259, 268 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease) , 225-226 Analytic epidemiological studies, 47 Anemia adolescents, 335 arsenic and, 506 of chronic disease, 303, 304 731 copper deficiency, 11, 226, 227-228, 486 infants, 296-297, 298, 300, 317 iron deficiency, 12-13, 22, 44, 226, 295299, 300, 301, 303, 305-306, 317, 352, 378, 583 macrocytic normochromic, 228 microcytic, 305 molybdenum and, 433 normocytic hypochromic, 11, 227 pregnancy and, 297-299 reproductive effects, 295, 297-298 vanadium and, 536 women, 297-299, 305 Angular stomatitis, 300 Animal studies arsenic, 45, 503, 505-506, 507, 508 boron, 45, 510, 511-512, 514-517 carotenoids, 94 chromium, 199-200, 213, 214-215, 458 copper, 226-227, 228-229, 232, 234235, 244, 246 dose-response assessment for ULs, 71, 75-76,78,436,710,711,712 extrapolation of data from, 63, 71, 74, 78, 436, 518, 526, 541, 710, 711, 712 for hazard identification, 71-72, 73, 409-411, 433-434, 514-515, 524 iodine, 279, 280 iron, 108, 121, 293, 296, 300 manganese, 396, 401, 406, 409-411 methodological considerations, 45, 71, 246, 279, 517, 712 molybdenum, 421, 424, 433, 435, 436 of neurotoxicity, 409-411 nickel, 524, 525, 526 relevance of, 45, 73, 234-235, 246, 279, 410, 433 reproductive effects, 406, 434-435 uncertainties in, 63, 78, 436, 540, 710, 711 vanadium, 532, 535-537, 539-540 vitamin A, 85, 95-96, 98, 104, 105, 108, 109, 121, 126 vitamin E, 175-176 vitamin K, 172, 173, 175-176, 188 zinc, 108, 455 Antacids, 204, 311, 531 Antibiotics, 164, 165, 166 Anticoagulants, 172, 174-175
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732 Antihistamine, 224-225 Antioxidant activity ceruloplasmin, 225 copper, 225-226, 229 superoxide dismutase, 225-226 Antithyroid antibodies, 281, 283 oc-l-Antitrypsin deficiency, 248 Antiviral activity, 85-86 p-Apocarotenals, 87 Apolipoprotein B100, 94 Apolipoprotein E, 163 Apoprotein E, 93 Apoptosis, 444 Apotransferrin, 200 Arginase activity, 394, 401 Arsenic absorption, 504 acute effects, 506 adverse effects, 7, 18, 505-508 and anemia, 506 animal studies, 45, 503, 505-506, 507, 508 and blackfoot disease, 506, 508 and cancer, 507-508, 509 developmental toxicity, 503, 507 in drinking water, 507, 508, 509 DRIB, 1, 6, 7, 36, 76, 78, 576 erythrocyte binding, 506 excretion, 504 exposure assessment, 509 food sources, 504, 509 forms, 504, 505, 509 functions, 45, 503 gastrointestinal symptoms, 506 gender and, 505, 658-659 and gene regulation, 503 genotoxicity, 507 and growth, 45, 503 hepatotoxicity, 506, 507 in human milk, 505 inorganic, 504, 505 intakes, 57, 504-505, 509, 658-659 international comparisons, 508 and keratosis, 506, 508 by life-stage group, 504, 658-659 malnutrition and, 506 maximum contaminant level, 508, 509 metabolism, 504 and methionine metabolism, 45 methyltransferase activity, 506 and peripheral neuropathy, 506-507 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES research recommendations, 28, 509510, 583 risk characterization, 509 and skin pigmentation, 506, 507-508 teratogenicity, 507 trimethylated, 504 ULs, 18, 505-510 units, 709 zinc deficiency and, 506 Arsenicism, 506 Arsenite, 503, 504, 507 Arthralgias, 434 Arthritis, 372 Ascaris lumbr~coides infection, 107 Ascorbic acid, 200, 204, 225, 292, 311-312, 313, 314, 315, 521 Aspirin, 204 Atherogenesis, 529 Atherosclerosis, 173, 532 Athletes iron requirements, 295, 296, 300, 305, 352-353, 574 vanadium supplements, 535, 537, 539 Autoimmune thyroid disease, 278, 283, 284 B Bacillus subtilis, 507 Balance studies adults, 309-310, 405-406, 428-429 children, 270, 404-405, 423 chromium, 198, 202 copper, 233, 241 design, 423, 581 infants, 269 iodine, 265, 275, 269, 270, 272, 274, 275 iron, 292, 308, 309-310, 314, 378 manganese, 395, 397-399, 404-406 methodological considerations, 45, 46, 49, 233, 265, 274, 309, 397 molybdenum, 14, 420, 423, 428-429 pregnancy, 274, 275 uses, 423 zinc, 445, 448, 455, 456, 458, 472, 474, 480 Basal losses of nutrients adolescents, 330, 331, 332, 337 children, 324, 325, 327 copper, 233, 240-242
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See also Metabolic weight ratio method extrapolation on basis of, 42, 51, 52, 53, 54, 78, 142, 144, 250, 270, 282, 321, 404, 413, 437, 463, 487, 519, 569 gender and, 52, 332, 333 and iron losses, 308, 322-323, 327, 329, 331, 332, 333, 338, 340, 343, 582 loss, 201 median, by age, 332 nickel and, 525 pregnancy-related gains, 54, 210, 298, 407, 430, 518 reference weights and heights, 41-42, 52, 114, 210, 329, 338, 468 Bone formation and growth biomarkers of turnover, 169 copper and, 227, 228, 229 manganese and, 13, 44, 394, 396 molybdenum and, 433, 435 peak bone mass, 40 silicon and, 45, 529, 530 vitamin K and, 10, 23-24, 162, 169, 170171, 172, 189, 583-584 Bone mineral density adults, 126-128 aging and, 40
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734 anticoagulation therapy and, 172 carotenoids and, 127-128 copper and, 228 manganese and, 396 menaquinones and, 170, 172 osteocalcin y-carboxylation and, 169, 170-171 vitamin A and, 126-128, 133 vitamin K and, 24, 169, 170-171 women, 126-128, 171, 172 Borax, 513, 514 Boric acid, 511, 513, 514, 518 Boron absorption and transport, 511-512, 520 adolescents, 519 adults, 16, 26, 517-518 adverse effects, 18, 514-517 animal studies, 45, 510, 511-512, 514517 blood concentrations, 511-512, 515 and blood glucose, 510 body pools, 511-512 calcium and, 511 children, 513, 519 and cognitive and neurophysiological function, 511, 521 data selection, 517 developmental effects, 510, 512, 514515, 518 dose-response assessment for ULs, 517519 in drinking water, 512, 514, 520 DRIB, 2, 6, 512, 576 and epilepsy, 514 and estrogen, 45, 511, 520-521 excretion, 511, 512, 515 exposure assessment, 520 and extramedullary hematopoiesis, 515 food sources, 512 forms, 510 functions, 45, 510-511 gastrointestinal effects, 514 gender and, 511, 520, 618-621, 644-647 genotoxicity, 514 hazard identification, 513-517 in human milk, 513 human studies, 514 and hyperkeratosis, 515 and immune function, 511 infants, 514, 519 and insulin secretion, 510-511 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES intakes, 55-56, 57, 512-513, 520, 618621, 644-647 interaction with other nutrients, 45, 510-511, 520 lactation, 513, 519 by life-stage group, 26, 512, 517-519, 618-621, 644-647 metabolism, 511-512 methodological issues, 517 NOAEL/LOAEL, 515, 516, 517-518 pharmacokinetics, 515 pregnancy, 513, 519, 520 reproductive effects, 512, 514-517 research recommendations, 28, 520521, 583 risk characterization, 520 supplements, 57, 513, 514, 520, 620621 and testicular atrophy, 515, 515-517 ULs, 16, 18, 26, 513-520, 576 uncertainty assessment, 518 units, 513, 709 vegetarians, 520 and vitamin D metabolism, 45, 510511, 520 Boron Nutrient Database, 55-56, 512-513 C Calcium, 24, 172, 313, 314, 396, 401, 455456, 457, 458, 462, 479, 480, 511 Canada arsenic, 504 cancer, 214 chromium, 212, 214 dietary intakes, 56, 57, 212, 356, 467, 474, 481, 674-679 infant food recommendations, 317 iodine, 261 iron, 57, 676-677 nickel, 522 Recommended Nutrient Intakes, 1, 3738, 554, 588 reference weights and heights, 41-42 stomach cancer in gold miners, 214 vitamin A, 57, 94, 674-675 vitamin K, 176, 177-178 zinc, 57, 451, 452, 467, 474, 481, 678679 Canadian Pacdiatric Society, 37, 50, 51, 317
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See also Neurological abnormalities defects, 128 function, 225, 226, 297 Ceruloplasmin antioxidant activity, 225 and copper status, 224, 225, 227-228, 229, 230, 231, 235, 239-240, 484 deficiency, 227, 377 infants, 235 and iron, 225, 293 and liver disease, 230 pregnancy and, 230 Children, ages 1 through 13 years. See also Life-stage groups; individual nutrients accretion of new tissue, 464, 467, 468 AIs, 34, 35, 39, 51-52, 562-563 balance studies, 270, 404-405, 423 basal losses of nutrients, 324, 325, 327 blood volume, 325-326 calcium, 313 cancer, 176-177, 188 copper deficiency anemia, 486 diarrhea, 96, 97 dietary intakes, 466, 467 EARs, 32, 39, 42, 51-52
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, 202, 208-209 aging and, 200 AIs, 12-13, 197, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 558, 561, 562-563, 564, 569 amino acids and, 204 animal studies, 199-200, 213, 214-215, 458 ascorbic acid and, 200, 204 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES balance studies, 198, 202 bioavailability, 211 blood glucose and, 24-25, 203-204 body stores, 200, 205, 209-210 and carbohydrates, 201, 204 carcinogenicity, 214 children, 207 deficiency, 200-201 and diabetes, 24-25, 200, 201, 216, 584 dietary fiber and, 204, 209 dose response assessment for ULs, 215216 energy intakes and, 11, 205, 208-209, 212 excretion, 199-200, 202, 207, 210 exposure assessment, 216 factors affecting requirement, 204 food composition analysis, 54, 569, 583 food sources, 211, 216 forms of, 197, 213 function, 11, 44, 197, 198 gender and, 11, 56-57, 202, 207, 208, 209, 212, 216, 620-621 genotoxicity, 197, 214 and glucose tolerance, 44, 198, 199, 201, 203-204, 209, 213, 216, 584 hazard identification, 213-215 and hepatic dysfunction, 214-215 in human milk, 205, 206, 209, 210 indicators of adequacy, 11, 12-13, 22, 24-25, 202-204 infants, 198, 205-207, 209-210 and insulin activity, 11, 24-25, 197, 198, 199, 203-204, 213, 216, 584 intakes, 11, 202, 205, 212-213, 216, 620-621 interaction with drugs, 204, 209 interaction with other nutrients, 200, 204, 209 intervention trials, 201, 213 iron and, 200 lactation and, 210-211, 212, 216 by life-stage group, 12-13, 205-211, 620621 metabolism, 200, 216 method used to set AIs, 11, 51-52, 54, 197, 205-207, 208-210 methodological issues, 25, 51-52, 54, 202, 211, 212, 214, 583 NOAEL/LOAEL, 215-216 oxalate and, 204
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, 16, 26, 56-57, 224, 228, 234, 239-243, 246, 249-250, 251, 252 AIs, 238 and anemia, 11, 226, 227-228 animal studies, 226-227, 228-229, 232, 234-235, 244, 246 antioxidant activity, 225-226, 229 balance studies, 233, 241 bioavailability, 233-234, 243, 244, 252 biochemical indicators, 11-12, 230-233, 239-240, 242 and blood coagulation, 229 and blood pressure, 229 body stores/retention, 226, 233, 234, 235, 243 and bone formation and growth, 227, 228, 229 and cancer, 248 and cardiovascular disease, 226, 228229 and catecholamine metabolism, 225, 229 and central nervous system function, 225, 226 ceruloplasmin concentration and, 224, 225, 227-228, 229, 230, 231, 235, 239-240, 484 children, 51-52, 227, 238-239, 247, 248, 250, 251, 252 and cholesterol (blood)
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738 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES and connective tisse synthesis, 225, 226 critical endpoint, 249 and cytochrome c oxidase activity, 225, 230, 231, 240 data selection, 249 deficiency effects, 226, 227-230, 238, 252, 424 depletion/repletion studies, 224, 228, 229, 231, 232, 239-240, 242 and diamine oxidase activity, 224-225, 232-233 and dietary protein, 246-247 dose-response assessment for ULs, 249251 in drinking water, 247, 249, 251-252 EARs, 14-15, 238-239, 242, 244, 245 energy expenditure and, 238 evidence considered in setting EAR, 239-242, 243, 244 excretion, 226, 227, 231-232, 233, 234, 240-242, 424 exposure assessment, 251-252 factorial analysis, 233, 240-242 factors affecting requirement, 233-235 and ferroxidases, 225, 293 fetal, 243 food sources, 245 in formula, 234, 238 fructose and, 234-235 functions, 11, 44, 224-226, 443 gastric acidity and, 226 gastrointestinal effects, 247, 248, 249 gender and, 56-57, 228, 245, 251, 622625, 648-649, 660-661 and glucose tolerance, 229 hazard identification, 246-249 hereditary defects in homeostasis, 248 in human milk, 235, 236-237, 244 human studies, 247 and idiopathic copper toxicosis, 248, 251 and immune function, 226, 229 and Indian childhood cirrhosis, 248, 251 indicators of adequacy, 11-12, 14-15, 224, 229-233 infants, 51, 226, 227, 234, 235-238, 250 intakes, 57, 224, 233-234, 235-237, 241, 245-246, 251-252, 622-625, 648-649, 660-661 Interaction with drugs, 225 interaction with other nutrients, 225, 226, 227, 231, 234, 246-247, 424, 434 and iron utilization, 225, 226, 227, 234, 246 lactation, 235, 244-245, 250, 251 leukocyte concentration, 232 by life-stage group, 14-15, 26, 235-245, 249-251, 622-625, 648-649, 660-661 liver damage, 224, 248, 249, 251 and lysyl oxidase activity, 225, 232 and Menkes' disease, 226, 232 metabolism, 226-227, 246-247, 433 metalloenzymes, 11, 224-226, 456 method used to set AI, 51-52, 235, 237 method used to set EAR, 11-12, 51-52, 238-239 methodological considerations, 51-52, 232, 246, 247 molybdenum and, 246, 424, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438 NOAEL/LOAEL, 249 and osteoporosis, 227 and peptidyl glycine oc-amidating monooxygenase activity, 225, 232 plasma concentration, 224, 229, 239240 platelet concentration, 224, 230, 231, 239-240 pregnancy, 226, 229-230, 243-244, 250, 251 RDAs, 2, 12, 14-15, 224, 239, 242-243, 244, 245 renal dysfunction and, 227 reproductive effects, 248 research recommendations, 252 risk characterization, 252 serum concentration, 229, 230, 235, 484 special considerations, 238, 251, 438 and superoxide dismutase activity in erythrocytes, 224, 225-226, 229, 231, 239-240 supplements, 56-57, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232-233, 246, 247, 248, 252 ULs, 2, 16, 18, 26, 224, 246-252, 562 uncertainty assessment, 249 units, 709 and Wilson's disease, 227, 234, 248, 251, 456 zinc and, 225, 234, 246, 443, 456, 458, 482, 484-488, 558
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See Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals Cysteine, 443 Cytochrome c oxidase activity, 225, 230, 231, 240 Cytochromes, iron and, 12, 291-292 Cytokines, 445 D Dark adaptation vitamin A and, 10, 21, 87-89, 95, 97-99, 121, 123, 300-301, 568 zinc and, 108-109 Data and database issues. See also Extrapolation of data on bioavailability of nutrients, 173, 174 for dietary intakes, 53-58, 104, 173, 556 for dose-response assessment for ULs, 66, 75-76, 77, 122, 133, 142-143, 249, 281, 373, 375, 412, 436, 483484, 486, 517 food composition databases, 54, 55-56, 184, 512-513, 560, 569, 583, 697-698 methodological issues, 2, 7, 8, 32, 39, 48-49, 173 nutrients intakes, 54, 55-57, 556 quality and completeness of data, 2, 7, 8, 32, 39, 48-49, 54, 66, 74, 77, 173, 184, 560, 569 supplement use, 57-58 types of data used, 45-49 Depletion/repletion studies adults, 224, 228, 229, 231, 232, 239240, 430 carotenoids, 88-89 739 copper, 224, 228, 229, 231, 232, 239240, 242 design, 581 manganese, 396, 397, 399, 400 methodological considerations, 45, 46 molybdenum, 430 vitamin A, 88-89, 122 vitamin K, 167 zinc, 108, 473-474 Developing countries iron, 351-352, 359, 377, 378 vitamin A, 94, 95, 96-97, 112, 118-122, 145 zinc, 488 Developmental effects boron, 510, 512, 514-515, 518 iron, 295, 296-297, 300 Developmental toxicity, 503, 507 Diabetes mellitus, 302, 372 chromium and, 24-25, 200, 201, 216, 584 vanadium and, 532, 534, 535, 536, 539, 542 Diamine oxidase, 224-225, 232-233 Diarrhea, 96, 97, 107, 118, 477 Dietary intakes.
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78, 711 infants, 143-144, 375-376, 413, 437, 486-487, 519 interindividual variation in sensitivity and, 77-78, 711 lactation, 375, 413, 414, 438, 487, 519 NOAEL/LOAEL identification, 76-77, 133, 138, 143-144, 249, 281, 374, 375-376, 412, 436, 484-486, 517-518, 525-526, 540 pregnancy, 133, 138, 375, 413, 414, 438, 487, 519 special considerations, 79, 145, 283, 376-377, 414, 438, 488, 528 UL derivation from, 64-65, 78, 126, 139, 143, 144, 250, 282, 373, 374, 376, 412, 437, 488, 518, 526-527, 541 uncertainty assessment, 76, 77-78, 139, 143, 144, 249, 281, 374, 376, 412, 436, 486-487, 518, 526, 540-541, 710, 711 Down's syndrome, 231 Drinking water, 267-268, 284, 642-643 arsenic in, 507, 508, 509 boron, 512, 514, 520 children's intakes, 247 copper, 247, 249, 251-252 manganese, 410, 411, 414 molybdenum, 434-435 nickel, 524, 528 vanadium, 535 zinc, 483 Drug interactions chromium, 204, 209 copper, 225 iodine, 268 vitamin A, 129, 133 vitamin K, 172, 174-175, 568 Dwarfism, 44 E Elastin, 225 Elderly people. See Adults ages 51+ years
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losses; see Basal losses of nutrients sweat, 260 Expert Scientific Working Group, 306 Exposure duration of, 73, 76, 360-363 route of, 73, 75-76, 246, 410, 509, 711 Exposure assessment. See also individual nutrients defined, 64, 65, 79 process, 64, 65 supplements, 65 Extramedullary hematopoiesis, 515 Extrapolation of data from animal studies, 63, 71, 74, 78, 436,518,526,540,541,710,711, 712 basal losses, 331 body surface area basis, 325, 569 body weight basis, 42, 51, 52, 53, 54, 78, 142, 144, 250, 270, 282, 321, 404, 413, 437, 463, 487, 519, 569 caloric intake basis, 228 daily intakes from urinary losses, 264, 272 growth factors by age group,51, 53, 331 from human milk intakes, 463
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742 metabolic weight ratio method, 53, 238, 272, 426, 427 NOAEL from LOAEL, 143, 144, 281, 374, 486, 540, 541 from one gender group to another, 341 from other age groups, 32, 35, 39, 41, 51-53, 78, 111, 112, 122, 144, 178, 179, 206-207, 237-238, 250, 269, 270, 272, 282, 321, 331, 404, 406, 413, 437, 463, 465, 467, 469, 470, 487, 519 from subchronic to chronic intake, 78, 711 uncertainties in, 77-78, 436, 518, 526, 540 F Factorial analysis, 49, 51 adults, 240-242, 340 children, 463, 467, 468 copper, 233, 240-242 infants, 463 iron, 13, 41, 290, 307-309, 319, 324, 330, 340-343, 344, 347, 348, 569 manganese, 397 pregnancy, 476 zinc, 15, 442, 447, 462, 463, 467, 468, 469-470, 471-473, 476 Fasting/starvation, 267, 373, 446, 448, 451 Fat, dietary and absorption of nutrients, 70, 106107, 118, 121, 163 hydrogenated, 174, 185-186 malabsorption syndromes, 164, 174 and manganese-superoxide dismutase activity, 401 and vitamin A, 70, 106-107, 118, 121 and vitamin E bioavailability, 173-174 and vitamin K, 163, 173-174, 185-186 Ferritin and cancer, 302 and cardiovascular disease, 365-367, 370, 377-378 gender differences, 395, 684-685, 694, 695 and iron, 21, 225, 291, 294, 299, 300, 301-303, 306, 307, 311, 313, 314, 315, 351, 352, 353-355, 357, 359, 365-367, 370, 371-372, 373, 377-378, 572, 684-685, 694, 696 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES and manganese, 395, 401, 402, 405 vanadium, 533 Ferroxidases, 225, 293 Fetal copper, 243 death, 299 folate, 456 hemoglobin, 316 hypothyroidism, 261-262 iodine, 261-262, 275 iron, 290, 299, 300, 309, 316, 345-346, 347 manganese, 406, 411 molybdenum, 436 neurobehavioral development, 477 nickel toxicity, 524, 526 resorption, 95 sensitivity to nutrients, 69, 507 vitamin A, 116, 128-129 vitamin K, 182 Fiber, dietary and chromium, 204, 209 and silicon, 530 and zinc, 458, 480 Fibrocystic breast disease, 259, 284 Flavoproteins, 291 Folate, 521, 529 Follicular hyperkeratosis, 96 Food additives, 268, 277, 530 Food and Agriculture Organization, 29-30, 60 Food and Drug Administration. See Total Diet Study Food coloring, 268 Food composition data analytical methods, 54, 56, 184, 560, 569, 583 carotenoids, 93, 124 chromium, 54, 569, 583 iodine, 277 iron, 697-698 quality and completeness of, 54, 184, 569 recommendations, 564 vitamin A, 124, 565-566 vitamin K, 184, 185 zinc, 560 Food matrix and bioavailability of nutrients, 68, 87-90, 107, 174, 312, 351, 359, 411, 414, 424, 429-430, 479, 530
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See also Men; Women; individual nutrients and absorption of nutrients, 402 and adverse effects of nutrients, 482 and y-carboxyglutamyl residues, 167 and cardiovascular disease, 359 743 dietary intakes, 122, 202, 354, 594-641, 644-653, 654-673, 674-679 and drinking water intakes, 642-643 and energy balance, 212 extrapolation of data on basis of, 341 and ferritin, 395, 684-685, 694, 695 and growth velocity, 331 and hemoglobin, 333, 336, 680-681 and iodine excretion, 690-691 and plasma glucose, 695 reference weights and heights, 41, 52 and relative body weight, 52, 332, 333 and retinal, 686-687, 692-693 and retinyl esters, 688-689 serum values for biochemical indicators by, 680-689 and supplement use, 56-57, 187, 278, 612-613, 620-621, 626-627, 632-637 and transferrin, 682-683 Gene expression, 15, 44, 82, 85, 442, 443, 454, 521 Gene regulation, 503 Genetic defects, 248 Genetic markers, 46, 453 Genotoxicity, 197, 214, 507, 514 Glossitis, 300 Glucagon, 446 Glucose tolerance aging and, 209 chromium and, 44, 198, 199, 201, 203204, 209, 213, 216, 584 copper and, 229 manganese and, 396 nickel and, 521 vanadium and, 532 Glucuronide conjugation, 164 Glutamine synthetase, 394 Glycotransferases, 394 Goiter, 12, 44, 261, 264-265, 266, 267, 271272, 276, 279-280, 283, 284 Green tongue, 538 Growth velocity adolescents, 39, 53, 331, 338, 339 arsenic and, 45, 503 children, 39, 53, 309, 324, 327, 328, 449-450, 465-466, 467-468 infants, 37, 38, 50, 53, 317, 320, 462, 465-466 iron and, 290, 309, 317, 320, 324, 328, 331, 333, 338, 339, 573 manganese and, 396
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, 176, 177 Hemorrhagic syndrome, 175 Hemosiderin, 291, 294, 357 Hepatitis, 129, 133, 134-139 Hepatocellular carcinoma, 370, 372 Hephaestatin, 225 Histidine, 443 Homocysteine, 521 Homovanillic acid, 410 Hookworm, 351 Hormone metabolism, 443, 444, 454, 532 Hormone replacement therapy, 350-351, 573 Human immunodeficiency virus, 443 Human milk. See also Lactation absorption of nutrients in, 238, 404 adequacy for infants O to 6 months, 3738, 50, 316, 557-558, 561, 562 analysis of nutrient content, 227 arsenic in, 505 bioavailability of nutrients in, 457, 557558 boron in, 513 carotenoids in, 111, 117 chromium, 205, 206, 209, 210 colostrum, 177, 178-179 copper, 235, 236-237, 244 excretion quantity, 269 extrapolation of data from intakes of, 463 and hemorrhagic disease of the newborn, 177 intakes, 37, 110, 111, 177, 178, 205, 318-319, 463 iodine, 268-269, 277, 283 iron, 6, 51, 316-317, 318-319, 320, 322323, 349, 697 manganese, 402, 403, 404, 407 molybdenum, 425, 426, 431
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See also specific indicators, life stages, and nutrients biochemical, 11-12, 230-233, 239-240, 242, 301-306, 423, 572, 680-691 functional, 300-301 risk reduction-based, 22-25 Infant Growth Study, 328 Infants, premature, 227, 297, 298, 425, 573 Infants, ages 0 through 12 months. See also Formulas, infant; Human milk accretion of new tissue, 464 ages 0 through 6 months, 4, 37, 38, 50, 110, 177-178, 205, 235, 268-269, 316-319, 403, 425, 458-463, 486, 562 ages 7 through 12 months, 6, 37, 38, 51, 111, 178-179, 205-207, 235, 237238, 269-270, 319-323, 404, 425-426, 463-466, 562 AI derivation for, 4, 34, 35, 37, 38, 5051, 53, 110-111, 557-558, 561, 562, 564 antiseptic toxicity, 280 Apgar scores, 300 balance studies, 269 basal losses of nutrients, 319, 320, 322, 325 bulging fontanel, 125, 132, 140-141 143, 144, 145 caloric intakes, 205 ceruloplasmin concentrations, 235 choleostatic liver disease, 396 cognitive development, 295, 300 complementary weaning foods, 38, 51, 111, 178-179, 205, 237, 312, 322, 404, 426, 462, 463, 465, 697 cow milk allergy, 317 cranial neural crest defects, 128-129, 138 defined, 37 developmental delays, 295, 296-297,300 diarrhea, 227 dietary intakes, 38, 110, 111, 117, 322323, 463 extrapolation of data to and from, 5153 factorial analysis, 463 goiter, 280
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From page 746... ...
See also Gastrointestinal effects damage, 233 environment and absorption, 311-312, 454-455 iron absorption, 292-293 losses of nutrients, 463-464 menaquinone synthesis, 162 parasites, 107, 118-119, 121, 351-352 zinc losses, 448, 456, 463-464, 472, 476 Intrauterine devices, 334 Iodate, 259 Iodermia, 280 Iodine absorption and transport, 259, 267 accumulation and turnover, 12, 258, 262-263, 269, 273-274, 275 acute responses, 279 adolescents, 264, 269, 270-273, 276, 277, 282, 283 adults (19+) , 16, 26, 56-57, 258, 264, 273-275, 278, 281-282, 283 adverse effects, 18, 279-280 aging and, 274 AIs, 16-17, 270 animal studies, 279, 280 autoimmune thyroid disease and, 278, 283, 284 balance studies, 265, 269, 270, 272, 274, 275
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From page 747... ...
INDEX bioavailability, 264, 267, 270 body stores, 260 and cancer, 259, 262, 266, 279, 280, 284 children, 12, 51-52, 262, 264, 265, 269, 270-273, 282, 284 and cretinism, 261-262 data selection, 281 deficiency, 12, 109, 259, 260, 261-268, 275-276, 278, 283, 284 dose-response assessment for ULs, 281283 EARs, 16-17, 272-273, 274, 276, 277 evidence considered in setting EAR, 258, 270-272, 273-274, 275-276 excretion, 259, 260-261, 263-264, 266, 269, 271-272, 273, 275, 279, 281, 284, 583 exposure assessment, 283-284 factors affecting requirement, 267-268 fetal, 261-262, 275 and fibrocystic breast disease, 259, 284 food sources, 261, 275-276, 277, 283 function, 12, 44, 258-259 gender and, 56-57, 258, 278, 626-627, 662-663, 690-691 and goiter, 12, 44, 261, 264-265, 266, 267, 271-272, 276, 279-280, 283, 284 goitrogens and, 267-268 hazard identification, 278-281 in human milk, 268-269, 277, 283 and hyperthyroidism, 260, 262, 263, 279, 280, 283 and hypothyroidism, 260, 261-262, 263, 264, 266, 267, 279, 280, 283 and immune function, 259, 284 indicators of adequacy, 16-17, 262-267, 690-691 infants, 51-52, 261, 266, 268-270, 275, 280, 282 intakes, 57, 261, 264, 270, 272, 278, 279, 283-284, 626-627, 662-663 interaction with drugs, 268 interaction with other ingested substances, 267-268 interaction with other nutrients, 260, 268, 284 international comparisons, 261, 262263, 271, 276, 279, 284 intervention studies, 279 and iodermia, 280 747 iron deficiency and, 268, 284 laboratory assays, 261, 266, 583 lactation, 277, 282, 283 by life-stage group, 16-17, 26, 268-277, 281-283, 626-627, 662-663, 690-691 and mammary dysplasia, 258-259 and mental retardation, 261-262 metabolism, 259-260, 279 method used to set AI, 51-52, 268-269 method used to set EAR, 12, 51-52, 265, 277 methodological considerations, 51-52, 265, 274, 284 NOAEL/LOAEL, 281, 282 pregnancy, 261, 274, 275-277, 280, 282, 283 RDAs, 12, 16-17, 51-52, 258, 271, 273, 274-275, 276, 277 and reproductive outcomes, 261, 262 research recommendations, 284, 583 risk characterization, 284 selenium deficiency and, 260, 268, 284 special considerations, 270, 278, 283 supplements, 56-57, 275-276, 278, 279, 280, 281, 284, 626-627 and thyroglobulin, 259-260, 264, 266267, 276 and thyroid size, 259, 264-265, 275-276, 279-280, 284 and thyroid stimulating hormone (thyrotropin, TSH) , 258, 260, 264, 265, 266, 268, 276, 279, 280, 281, 707 and thyroiditis, 263, 279, 283 and thyotoxicosis, 280 and thyroxine, 258, 267 and triiodothyronine, 258, 260, 267 ULs, 2, 16, 18, 26, 258, 278-284, 562 uncertainty assessment, 281 units, 709 urinary, 259, 260-261, 263-264, 266, 269, 271-272, 273-274, 275, 279, 281, 284, 690-691 vitamin A and, 268, 284 Iron absorption and transport, 21, 291, 292294, 301, 303, 308, 311-313, 314, 315, 317, 321, 322-323, 327, 337, 342, 347, 351, 357, 372, 378, 455, 483, 521, 697 accretion, 21, 227, 309, 324, 372
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From page 748... ...
748 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES acute toxicity, 357 adolescents, 21, 292, 302, 304, 305, 309, 316, 319, 330-340, 341, 348349, 350, 353, 355, 375-376, 573, 699, 700, 702 adults, 16, 27, 56-57, 301, 316, 319, 340-344, 353, 355, 373-375, 694, 699, 700, 703 adverse effects, 18, 290, 357-372 AIs, 18-19, 317 alcohol consumption and, 376 and anemia, 12-13, 22, 44, 226, 295299, 300, 301, 303, 305-306, 317, 352, 378, 583 animal studies, 108, 121, 293, 296, 300 ascorbic acid and, 292, 311-312, 313, 314, 315 athletes, 295, 296, 300, 305, 352-353, 574 balance studies, 292, 308, 309-310, 314, 378 basal losses, 290, 295, 307-308, 320, 322-323, 324, 325, 327, 329, 330, 331, 332, 337, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344-345, 347, 349, 569 bioavailability, 4, 292, 311, 312-313, 314-316, 317, 322-323, 327, 337, 346-347, 349, 351, 355, 359, 378 biochemical indicators of deficiency, 301-306, 572, 680-685 blood donation and, 352, 574 body stores, 290, 291, 293, 294, 299, 301-303, 306, 308, 311, 314, 316, 319, 321, 323, 324, 327, 330, 332, 341, 358-359, 365, 378 body weight and, 308, 322-323, 327, 329, 331, 332, 333, 338, 340, 343, 582 calcium and, 313, 314 and cancer, 302, 303, 370-372, 373 and cardiovascular disease, 359, 364371, 372, 373, 377-378 and central nervous system processes, 297 cerruloplasmin and, 225, 293 children, 108, 292, 297, 301, 309, 313, 316, 319, 321, 322-323, 324-340, 353-355, 357, 375-376, 698, 699, 701 and chromium, 200 citric acid and, 312, 357 and cognitive function, 13, 295, 296297, 300, 378, 583 copper and, 225, 226, 227, 234, 246 and coronary heart disease, 359, 365, 368-369 and cytochromes, 12, 291-292 data selection, 373, 375 deficiency, 108, 121, 226, 268, 284, 291, 293-300, 354, 355, 455 in developing countries, 351-352, 359, 377, 378 and development delays, 295, 296-297, 300 distribution of requirements, 327-329, 337-338, 348, 350, 559, 563, 569, 572, 573-574, 576, 699, 700 dose-response assessment for ULs, 373377 early deficiency, 301, 303-305, 306, 335 EARs, 18-19, 323-324, 328, 329, 338339, 344, 349, 350 enhancers of nonheme iron absorption, 311-312 and erythrocytes, 290, 301, 302, 304, 305-306, 309, 313, 346, 347, 352 evidence considered in setting EAR, 319-323, 324-329, 330-338, 340-348, 349-350 excretion, 21, 295, 307-309, 319, 322323, 352 exposure assessment, 377 factorial modeling, 13, 41, 290, 307309, 319, 324, 330, 340-343, 344, 347, 348, 569 factors affecting requirement, 311-316 FAD/WHO values, 345 and ferritin, 21, 225, 291, 294, 299, 300, 301-303, 306, 307, 311, 313, 314, 315, 351, 352, 353-355, 357, 359, 365-367, 370, 371-372, 373, 377-378, 572, 684-685, 694, 696 and ferroxidases, 225 fetal, 290, 299, 300, 309, 316, 345-346, 347 and flavoproteins, 291 food composition data, 697-698 food sources, 312, 314,355-356, 697-698 in formula, 234, 317, 322-323 in fortified foods, 355-356, 358, 378 functions, 12-13, 44, 290, 291-292, 300301
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From page 749... ...
INDEX gastric acidity and, 292, 311 gastrointestinal effects, 290, 352, 358, 360-365, 373-377 gender and, 13, 56-57, 290-291, 304, 324, 333, 336, 338-339, 340-344, 354, 356, 359, 628-631, 650-651, 664-665, 676-677, 680-685, 694, 696, 702, 703 growth velocity and, 290, 309, 317, 320, 324, 328, 331, 333, 338, 339, 573 hazard identification, 357-373 home, 291, 292, 293-294, 304, 311, 312, 314, 315, 327, 356, 374, 455, 483 and heme-flavoproteins, 291 hemochromatosis, 200, 358, 359, 370, 372-373, 376, 378 and hemoglobin (hematocrit) , 12, 22, 44, 290, 291, 292, 295, 299, 302, 303, 305, 306, 307, 308, 316, 319, 320-321, 322-323, 324, 325-326, 329, 330, 331-333, 335, 336, 337-338, 342, 345-346, 349, 680-681 and hemosiderin, 291, 294, 357 hormone replacement therapy and, 350-351, 573 in human milk, 6, 51, 316-317, 318319, 320, 322-323, 349, 697 and immune response, 300, 302 indicators of adequacy, 18-19, 21, 300310, 311, 680-685 infants, 51, 234, 295, 296-297, 300, 312, 316-324, 325, 353, 375-376, 378, 573, 697, 701 inhibitors of nonheme iron absorption, 312-313 intakes, 57, 290, 322-323, 352, 353-355, 356, 377, 559, 628-631, 650-651, 664-665, 676-677, 696 interaction with other nutrients, 108, 200, 225, 226, 227, 234, 246, 268, 284, 292, 304, 311-313, 314, 315, 357-358, 373, 401, 455, 458, 482483, 521 intervention studies, 108, 313 intestinal parasitic infection and, 351352 and iodine, 268, 284 and koilonychia, 300 laboratory measurements, 301-306 749 lactation, 318-319, 349-350, 375, 377, 455 lactic acid and, 312 and lactoferrin, 291 by life-stage group, 18-19, 27, 316-355, 373-376, 628-631, 650-651, 664-665, 676-677, 680-685, 696 liver disease and, 370, 372, 376 malic acid and, 312 and manganese absorption, 395, 401, 402, 405, 409 menstrual losses, 290, 291, 292, 295, 301-302, 309, 330, 332, 334-337, 338, 339-340, 341-343, 350, 355, 570-572, 700 metabolism, 225, 294, 521 method used to set AI, 316-317 method used to set EAR, 13, 18-19, 290, 307-310, 314-316, 340-343, 569 methodological issues, 41, 307, 309 and mucosal integrity, 300 and myoglobin, 12, 44, 290, 291, 292, 296, 333 nickel and, 521 NOAEL/LOAEL, 374, 375-376 nonheme, 291, 292, 311-312, 313, 314, 315, 351, 374, 375, 376, 455 oral contraceptives and, 334-335, 343, 350, 573, 700, 702, 703 oxidation states, 291 and pagophagia, 300 physical exercise and endurance training and, 295, 296, 300, 305, 352-353, 574 phytates and, 312-313, 314 and pica, 300 plasma glucose and, 302, 582 polyphenols and, 313, 314 pregnancy, 13, 22, 292, 295, 297-300, 302, 304, 305, 309, 344-349, 356, 375, 377, 378, 455, 573 prevalence of inadequate intakes, 21, 22, 353-355, 570, 576 probabilities of inadequate intakes, 570-572, 576, 701-703 and protoporphyrin, 291, 304, 306 race/ethnicity and, 302-303, 308, 694 RDAs, 3-4, 18-19, 33-34, 290, 307, 324, 328, 329, 339, 344, 349, 350, 569 research recommendations, 377, 582, 583
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From page 750... ...
See also Human milk; individual nutrients and absorption efficiency, 244 basal losses of nutrients and, 349 bioavailability of nutrients, 349 derivation of DRIs for, 40-41, 54 evidence considered in setting EAR, 117, 244, 349-350, 431 and hemoglobin mass, 349 method used to set AIs, 183-184, 210, 407 methodological considerations, 54 stage of, 50, 110-111, 206, 235-237, 269, 318-319, 403, 425, 459-461, 478 supplement use, 177 ULs, 145 variability of requirements, 350 zinc, 452, 471, 474 Lactic acid, 312 Lactoferrin, 291 p-Lactoglobulin, 112 Lead poisoning, 304 Lean body mass, 69 Leukemia, 176, 188, 509 Leukocyte copper concentration, 232 Leukopenia, 11, 227 Lewis acid, 443 Life-stage group. See also Adolescents; Adults; Children; Infants; Lactation; Pregnancy; individual nutrients Body Mass Index categories by, 41 and derivation of DRIB, 36-41, 50-54
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From page 751... ...
defined, 66, 706 751 extrapolation of NOAEL from, 143, 144, 281, 374, 486 identification of, 76-77, 133, 138, 143144, 249, 281, 374, 375-376, 412, 436, 485-486 used instead of NOAEL, 78, 143-144 uncertainty factors, 77 vitamin A Lung cancer, 507 Lutein, 109, 123, 602-603 Lycopene, 84, 109, 123, 604-605 T-Lymphocyte development and activation, 443 Lymphocyte 5'-nucleotidase activity, 453, 473-474 Lymphocytic thyroiditis, 283 Lysine, 225 Lysyl oxidase activity, 225, 232 M oc-2-Macroglobulin, 395, 421, 446 Magnesium trisilicate, 531 Malabsorption syndromes, 164, 180, 445 end vitamin A, 107, 118-119 and vitamin K, 174, 180 and zinc, 445, 446, 457 Malic acid and, 312 Malnutrition, 30. See also Protein energy malnutrition and blackfoot disease, 506 children, 97, 270, 454 chromium and, 198 and creatinine excretion, 263 and hypoptothrombinemia, 164 infants, 198 iodine and, 270 and triiodothyronine concentrations, 267 vitamin A deficiency and, 97, 99, 145 wasting, 97 Mammary dysplasia, 258-259 Manganese absorption and transport, 395, 401402, 404, 409 adolescents, 397, 404-405, 406-407, 413, 414 adults, 16, 27, 56-57, 398-399, 405-406, 411, 412-413 adverse effects, 18, 395, 409-411
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From page 752... ...
752 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES AIs, 14, 20-21, 404, 405, 407, 558, 561, 562-563, 564 and amino acid metabolism, 13, 394 animal studies, 396, 401, 406, 409-411 and arginase activity, 394, 401 balance studies, 395, 397-399, 404-406 bioavailability, 401-402, 411, 414 blood concentration, 400, 401, 409 and bone formation, 13, 44, 394, 396 calcium and, 401 and carbohydrate metabolism, 13, 394, 396 children, 404-405, 413 and cholesterol, 396, 410-411 in cow milk, 404 data selection, 412 deficiency, 396 depletion/repletion studies, 396, 397, 399, 400 dietary protein and, 397, 401 dose-response assessment for ULs, 412414 in drinking water, 410, 411, 414 and estrous cycle, 396 excretion, 395-396, 397, 400-401 exposure assessment, 414 factorial analysis, 397 factors affecting requirement, 401-402 ferritin and, 395, 401, 402, 405 fetal, 406, 411 food sources, 407-408 in formula, 397, 402, 404 function, 13, 44, 394 gender and, 20-21, 56-57, 394, 395, 401, 402, 405, 406, 408, 632-633, 666-667 and glucose tolerance, 396 and growth, 396 hazard identification, 409-412 human ecological studies, 411 in human milk, 402, 403, 404, 407 indicators of adequacy, 13-14, 20-21, 397-401, 414 infants, 395-396, 402-404, 411, 413 intakes, 13-14, 57, 394, 397, 405, 406, 407, 408, 414, 632-633, 666-667 interaction with other nutrients, 395, 396, 387, 401-402 interindividual variation in absorption, 397, 402 iron status and, 395, 401, 402, 405, 409 lactation, 407, 413, 414 by life-stage group, 20-21, 27, 402-407, 412-414, 632-633, 666-667 and lipid metabolism, 13, 394, 396 liver disease and, 395-396, 401, 409, 414 metabolism, 395 metalloenzymes, 394, 401 method used to set AI, 13, 54, 402-407 methodological considerations, 54, 397 neurotoxicity, 409-411 NOAEL/LOAEL, 412 and osteoporosis, 396 phytate and, 402 pregnancy, 54, 406-407, 413, 414 prevalence of inadequacy, 561 and reproductive function, 396 research recommendations, 414 risk characterization, 414 serum/plasma concentrations, 395396, 399-400, 409 special considerations, 404, 414 and superoxide dismutase activity, 225, 394, 401, 412, 414 supplements, 56-57, 395, 399, 401, 408, 409, 412, 414, 632-633 transferrin and, 395, 409 transferrin receptor density and, 409, 411 ULs, 2, 16, 18, 27, 394, 408-414, 562 uncertainty assessment, 412 units, 709 vegetarian diets, 408, 412, 414 vitamin K deficiency and, 396 Marasmus, 119 Market Basker Surveys, 56 Market Research Corporation of America, 186 Matrix Gla protein, 163, 173 Maximum contaminant levels, 508, 509 Measles, 96, 97 Melanin formation, 44, 225 Men. See also Gender basal losses of nutrients, 340 boron, 511 cancer risk, 370-371, 377 cardiovascular risk, 377-378 copper, 228, 240, 245, 246, 251 follicular hyperkeratosis, 96 HDL concentrations, 482 hemoglobin concentrations, 305
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From page 753... ...
See also individual nutrients amino acid, 13, 44, 204, 394, 420-421 basal rate considerations, 32-33 bone, 10, 23-24, 162, 169, 170, 172, 189, 229, 583-584 carbohydrates, 13, 44, 201, 204, 394, 396, 444 catecholamines, 225, 229 collagen metabolism, 45, 225, 529, 530 compartmental model, 535 energy, 40, 54 ethanol, 475 glucose, 521, 532 hormone, 443, 444, 454, 532 inborn errors of, 421 753 level of intake and, 445 lipid metabolism, 13, 44, 394, 396, 532 methionine, 45, 509 thyroid, 268 tryptopham, 458 vitamin D, 45, 510-511, 520 Metal response element transcription factor (MTF1) , 443 Metalloenzymes copper, 11, 44, 224-226, 456 manganese, 44, 394, 401 zinc, 443 Metallothionein, 234, 443, 444, 453, 456, 473 Metallothionein gene, 444 Methionine, 45, 422, 423, 509, 521 Methodological considerations AIs, 50-52 animal studies, 45, 71, 246, 279, 517, 712 balance studies, 45, 46, 233, 265, 274, 309, 397 bioconversion of carotenoids to vitamin A, 2, 82-83, 86-93, 565 biomarkers, 47 boron, 517 children, 32, 39, 51-52, 53, 112, 180 chromium, 25, 51-52, 54, 202, 211, 212, 214, 583 comparability of studies, 169-170 confounding of nutrients, 23-24, 47-48, 106, 143, 171, 214 copper, 51-52, 232, 246, 247 data limitations, 2, 7, 8, 32, 39, 48-49, 173 depletion/repletion studies, 45, 46 dietary intakes, 47, 54-58, 166, 182, 186, 208, 209, 212, 432, 466, 556, 559, 572, 583 EARs, 32-34, 49, 51-53 epidemiological studies, 46 in extrapolation of data, 49, 51-53 food composition data, 569, 583 food sources, 58 generalizability of results, 46, 48, 172 human studies, 45-46, 50, 67-68, 247 immune function tests, 106 infants, 38, 50-51, 53, 110-111 intervention trials, 48 iodine, 51-52, 265, 274, 284 iron, 41, 307, 309
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From page 754... ...
754 kinetic modeling of body pools, 446, 582 laboratory assays, 46, 168, 169, 202, 211, 266, 306, 434, 452, 583 lactation, 54 manganese, 54, 397 measurement errors, 47 molybdenum, 51-52, 54, 432, 434 nickel, 526 nutrient intake estimates, 47, 54-55, 556-557, 583 nutrient-nutrient interactions, 47, 106, 143, 171, 214 observational studies, 45, 46-48 pregnancy, 53-54 randomized clinical trials, 45, 47-48 in risk assessment, 46-47 sample size, 127, 434 standardization of tests, 106, 266, 284, 583 types of data used, 45-49 vitamin A, 51-52, 106, 127, 143 vitamin K, 23-24, 166, 168, 169, 171, 172, 184, 186 weighing the evidence, 48-49 zinc, 452, 476 2-Methyl-1,4-naphthoquinones, 162 Methyltransferase activity, 506 Mevilonin, 411 Miliaria crystalline, 396 Modified relative dose response test, 104 Molybdenum absorption and transport, 421, 424 adolescents, 427-428, 430-432, 437-438 adults, 16, 27, 420, 424, 428-430, 436437 adverse effects, 18, 433-436 AIs, 427 and amino acid metabolism, 420-421 and anemia, 433 animal studies, 421, 424, 433, 435, 436 balance studies, 14, 420, 423, 428-429 bioavailability, 420, 424-425, 427, 429, 435, 439 biochemical indicators, 423 blood levels, 421, 434 and cancer, 435 children, 51-52, 423, 427-428, 437-438 and copper metabolism, 246, 424, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438 data selection, 436 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES deficiency, 420-422, 424 depletion/repletion studies, 430 dose-response assessment for ULs, 436438 in drinking water, 434-435 EARs, 427, 430, 431 energy expenditure and, 427 enzyme cofactor deficiency, 14, 420, 423, 424 in erythrocytes, 421 evidence considered in setting EAR, 427, 428-431 excretion, 421, 422-423, 429, 435 exposure assessment, 439 factors affecting requirement, 424-425 fetal, 436 food sources, 424-425, 432 in formula, 425 function, 14, 44, 420-421 gender and, 22-23, 424, 432, 632-633 and growth depression, 433, 435 hazard identification, 433-436 and hemoglobin, 435 in human milk, 425, 426, 431 human studies, 434 indicators of adequacy, 14, 22-23, 422423 infants, 425-427, 437, 438 intakes, 420, 432, 439, 632-633 interactions, 246, 424, 433, 434 lactation, 425, 426, 431-432, 438 by life-stage group, 22-23, 27, 425-432, 436-438, 632-633 metabolism, 421 method used to set AI, 51-52, 54, 425426 method used to set EAR, 14, 22-23 methodological considerations, 51-52, 54, 432, 434 and neurological abnormalities, 14, 421, 422 NOAEL/LOAEL, 436 plasma/serum concentrations, 422 pregnancy, 54, 430-431, 438 RDAs, 2, 14, 22-23, 420, 427-428, 430, 431-432 and renal failure, 433-434 reproductive effects, 420, 433, 434-435, 436, 438 research recommendations, 439 risk characterization, 439
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From page 755... ...
anthropometric data, 41, 302, 341, 343, 694 biochemical indicators, 680-691 boron, 56, 512, 513, 618-621 carotenoids, 123, 566, 594-605 chromium, 212-213, 216, 561, 620-621 copper data, 51, 56, 235, 237 defined, 55, 707 design, 55 755 energy intakes, 11 ferritin concentrations, 684-685, 694, 695, 696 glucose, 201, 695 hemoglobin concentrations, 305, 680681 iodine, 261, 263, 278, 626-627, 690-691 iron, 51, 56, 354, 373, 377, 628-631, 680-685, 696 manganese, 408, 414, 632-633 molybdenum, 432, 439, 632-633 nickel, 523, 634-635 retinal, 606-607, 686-687, 692-693 retinyl esters, 688-689 serum values of nutrients, 302-303, 354, 373 silicon, 531, 634-635 supplement data, 57, 125, 212-213, 216, 246, 278, 408, 414, 432, 439, 488, 523, 612-613, 620-621, 626-627, 632-633, 693 thyroid monitoring in children, 284 total intakes, 377, 616-617, 624-625, 630-631 transferrin concentrations, 682-683 vanadium, 534, 636-637 vitamin A, 21, 51, 56, 111, 122-123, 125, 145, 608-613, 686-689, 692-693 vitamin K, 56, 180, 181, 182, 183, 186, 566, 614-617 water intakes, 247, 642-643 zinc, 51, 56, 463, 481, 485, 488, 559, 561-562, 575, 638-641 National Health Interview Survey, 56-57 National Nutrition Monitoring System, 554 National Research Council, risk assessment model, 63-64, 712 Natural resistance associated macrophage protein (NRAMP2) , 293, 294 Negative acute phase proteins, 99 Neurological abnormalities, 14, 44, 201, 252, 261-262, 409-411, 421, 422, 506-507, 538; see also Central nervous system Neutropenia, 11, 227, 228 Nickel absorption and transport, 521-522 acute effects, 524 adolescents, 523, 527, 528 adults, 16, 27, 523, 525-527 adverse effects, 18, 524-525
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From page 756... ...
See also Dietary intakes; individual nutrients boron, 55-56 Canadian, 56, 57, 212, 356, 674-679 chronic, 79-80 day-to-day variation adjustments, 55, 56, 123, 186, 556, 559 in drinking water, 560 extrapolation from subchronic to chronic, 78 extrapolation from urinary losses, 264, 272 form of, 68, 73 n.2 health effects as a function of, 76-77 interindividual variability in, 69, 77-78, 139, 143, 144, 397, 402, 559 interpretation of, 68, 564-565 methodological considerations, 47, 5455, 556-557, 583 prevalence of inadequate intakes, 21, 22, 353-355, 558-559, 560-561, 563, 564 public health implications, 79-80 quality of data, 54, 556, 560-561 from supplements, 57-58, 68, 79, 612613, 626-627, 632-637 total calculated, 68, 616-617, 624-625, 630-631, 640-641 U.S., 356, 467, 594-641, 644-649, 654673
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From page 757... ...
See also individual nutrients amino acids, 446 cholesterol, 396 ferritin, 395, 405 glucose, 302, 582, 695 methionine, 423 phylloquinone, 166 urea and uric acid, 422, 423, 434, 437, 535, 540 Plasmodium falciparum malaria, 96 Platelet copper concentration, 224, 230, 231, 239-240 Polyglutamate hydrolase, 456 Polyphenols, 313, 314 Pre-albumin, 454, 473 Pregnancy. See also Lactation; individual nutrients and absorption efficiency, 243 animal studies, 406 balance studies, 274, 275 basal nutrient losses, 344-345, 347, 348 and bioavailability of nutrients, 346-347 and ceruloplasmin concentrations, 230 derivation of DRls for, 40-41, 53-54 eclampsia, 299 evidence considered in setting EAR, 116, 243, 275-276, 344-348, 430-431 factorial approach, 476
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From page 758... ...
, 167-168, 176, 181-182 Protein kinase C activity, 444 Proteinuria, 434 Proteoglycan synthesis, 394 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES Prothrombin in newborns, 177 time, 163, 164, 165-166 undercarboxylated, 163, 167-168, 176, 177, 181-182 vitamin E and, 175 vitamin K and, 163, 164, 165-168, 175, 176, 177, 181-182 Protoporphyrin, 291, 304, 306 Provitamin A carotenoids. See also p-Carotene; other individual carotenoids absorption, 86-93, 107 activity, 2 bioavailability, 107 bioconversion to vitamin A, 2, 10, 8693,94, 111, 117,564,576,582 blood concentrations, 83, 90-91, 103, 107, 118 and chronic disease, 118 dietary fat and, 106-107 food composition data, 83, 564 food sources, 82, 83, 84, 118, 119 forms, 83, 707 functions, 86 gender differences, 594-601 in human milk, 111, 117 intakes, 82, 118, 123, 127, 594-601 intervention trials, 119, 121 by life-stage group, 594-601 RAEs, 10, 82, 87-93 research recommendations, 582 structure, 83-84 supplements, 126 Pubertal development, 39, 42, 316, 330, 477, 573 Pupillary response test, 98-99 Pyruvate carboxylate, 394 R and dietary intake data, 47 and ferritin, 694 and iron, 302-303, 308, 694 and puberty onset, 39 and reproductive outcomes, 476-477 Radiocontrast media, 259, 268, 273 Radiotracer methods vitamin A, 94, 95, 103, 114 zinc, 357-358, 455, 472, 489
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From page 759... ...
See also Pregnancy animal studies, 406, 434-435 boron, 512, 514-517 chromium, 215 copper, 248 impotence, 372, 477 iodine, 261, 262 iron deficiency anemia, 295, 297-298 manganese, 396 molybdenum, 420, 433, 434-435, 436, 438 nickel, 524, 525-526 spontaneous abortions, 248 testicular atrophy, 515, 515-517 vanadium, 532, 537 vitamin A-related risks, 10, 82, 130-131, 133, 138-139 zinc, 444, 447, 476, 483 Requirement, defined, 29, 30 759 Research recommendations. See also individual nutrients approach to setting, 580-581 dietary intakes, 583-584 functional and biochemical endpoints, 27, 488-489 gender issues, 582 interactions, 27, 582-583 nonnutritional influences on bioindicators, 28, 582 pregnancy-related requirements, 582 priorities, 26-28, 584-585 Retinitis pigmentosis, 146 Retinoic acid receptors, 443 Retinoids defined, 83 vitamin K and, 176 Retinol gender and, 686-687, 692-693 intakes, 99, 102-103, 104, 105, 106-107, 112, 124, 565, 606-607, 686-687, 692-693, 709 international units, 565-566 iron and, 108 plasma/serum concentration, 99, 102103, 104, 105, 106-107, 112 Retinol activity equivalents (RAEs)
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From page 760... ...
See also individual nutrients ceruloplasmin, 239-240 diamine oxidase activity, 232-233 ferritin, 21, 299, 301-303, 306, 311, 313, 314, 315, 351, 352, 353-354, 359, 365-367, 370, 373, 395, 402, 572, 684-685, 694, 695, 696 IGF-1, 474 lipoprotein, 482 retinal, 686-687 retinyl esters, 688-689 thyroglobulin, 266-267, 276 thyroptropin, 258 transferrin, 303-304, 370, 682-683 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES TSH, 265, 266, 276, 279, 281 urea and creatinine, 535, 540 uric acid, 422, 423, 434 Short bowel syndrome, 446 Silicon absorption and transport, 529 and atherogenesis, 529 bioavailability, 530 and bone formation, 45, 529, 530 carcinogenicity, 531 and collagen formation, 529, 530 dietary fiber and, 530 dose-response assessment for ULs, 531532 DRIB, 1, 6, 7, 36, 76, 78, 530, 576 elderly people, 532 excretion, 529-530 food sources, 530 function, 45, 529 gender and, 530, 634-635, 670-671 hazard identification, 531 in human milk, 530 infants, 530 intakes, 57, 530-531, 634-635, 670-671 interactions with other nutrients, 530 by life-stage group, 530, 634-635, 670671 metabolism, 529 and renal failure, 529 research recommendations, 28, 532, 583 serum concentrations, 529 supplements, 57, 531, 634-635 ULs, 18, 531-532 units, 709 and urolithiasis, 531 Simulator of iron transport (SFT) , 294 Skin cancer, 507-508 lysyl oxidase activity, 232 pigmentation, 506, 507-508 Spl, 443 Special considerations adolescents, 330, 339-340, 358, 573 age of menarche, 339-340, 573 alcohol consumption, 118, 145, 376377, 480 athletes, 574 autoimmune thyroid disease, 283 blood donation, 352, 574 chromium, 207
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From page 761... ...
INDEX copper, 238, 251, 438 cow milk, 112, 179-180, 207, 238, 270, 317, 404, 427, 462 developing countries, 118-122, 377 diarrhea, 118-119 drinking-water levels of nutrients, 414 drug interactions, 121 elderly people, 479-480 growth spurts, 339, 573 hemochromatosis, 376-377 hormone replacement therapy, 350351, 573 hyperlipidemia, 145 hypersensitivity to nutrient, 528 identification of, 30 idiopathic copper toxicosis, 251 Indian childhood cirrhosis, 251 infant formula, 179-180, 207, 238, 270, 317, 404, 427, 462 infants, 179-180, 238, 317, 573 intestinal parasites, 118-119, 351-352 iodine, 270, 278, 283 iron, 121, 317, 339-340, 350-353, 376377, 572, 573-574 kidney dysfunction, 528 lactation, 121 liver disease, 145, 376-377, 414 manganese, 404, 414 Menke's disease, 488 molybdenum, 427, 438 nickel, 528 nutrient interactions, 438, 480 oral contraceptives, 350, 573 parasites and infections, 118-119, 121 physical exercise/endurance training, 352-353 in pregnancy, 573 protein energy malnutrition, 119, 145 supplement use, 377, 414 ULs, 145, 488 vegetarian diets, 118, 119, 120, 351, 414, 479-480, 574 vitamin A, 112, 118-122, 145 vitamin K, 179-180 Wilson's disease, 251, 488 zinc, 462, 479-480, 487 Sprue, 446 Stomach cancer, 214, 372 Stress response, 444, 445, 489 Sulfite oxidase, 420, 421, 422 Sulfur, 434 761 Superoxide dismutase alcohol consumption and, 231, 401 antioxidant activity, 225-226 cupro/zine, 224, 225-226, 229, 231, 239-240, 442, 443, 453, 482, 483 mangano, 225, 394, 401, 412, 414 Supplements. See also individual nutrients bioavailability of nutrients, 30, 70, 8889, 173-174, 568 body-building, 520 children, 96, 465-466 composition data, 560 data sources on intakes, 57-58, 125, 246 form of nutrient in, 375, 568 gender differences, 56-57, 187, 246, 278, 488, 612-613 intakes from, 57, 65, 125, 187, 212-213, 216, 246, 278, 356, 408, 414, 432, 439, 481, 488, 513, 520, 523, 575, 612-613, 620-621, 626-627, 632-633, 693 intervention trials, 48 multivitamin/mineral, 401, 557, 575 sustained release, 375 therapeutic doses, 95-96, 145 ULs and, 65, 79, 145 usage, 56-58, 246, 278, 481, 612-613 T Tannic acid, 312, 313 Temperature regulation, 300 Teratogenicity arsenic, 507 vitamin A, 128-133 zinc and, 444 Testicular atrophy, 515-517 Testosterone, 454 Tetraiodotyrosine, 260 Thalassemias, 306, 377 Thiocyanate, 267 Thyroglobulin, 259-260, 264, 266-267, 276 Thyroid gland cancer, 262, 280, 284 iodine accumulation and turnover, 262-263, 273-274 iodine transport, 259 molybdenum and, 433 monitoring in children, 284 newborns, 275
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From page 762... ...
Thyroxine, 258, 267, 454, 473 Thyroxine-binding globulin, 260 Tissue cultures menaquinone, 162 oc-Tocopherol, 175 oc-Tocopherol quinone, 175 Toddlers, ages 1 through 3 years, 21, 39, 112, 121, 122, 180, 238, 270, 272, 313, 321, 404 Tolerable, defined, 7, 35, 60 Tolerable Upper Intake Levels. See also Dose-response assessment; Hazard identification; Risk assessment models; individual nutrients adolescents, 142, 145 adults, 16, 26-27, 53 appropropriateness of intakes above, 17-18, 36, 60, 61, 125, 145-146, 246, 278, 284, 356, 408, 433, 513, 523524, 531, 534, 542 children, 42, 53 critical endpoints, 7-8, 70 defined, 3, 6, 7, 35, 60, 68, 125, 213, 246, 356, 408, 433, 513, 523, 531, 534 derivation of, 35, 42, 53, 62, 67-70, 75, 78-79, 126, 139, 143, 144, 250, 282, 373, 374, 376, 412, 437, 486, 488, 518 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES development steps, 71-79 fortification of foods and, 7, 36, 61, 68, 575 group applications, 554, 561-562, 563564 individual applications, 558 by life-stage groups, 69 pregnancy and lactation, 139, 142 prevalence of intakes above, 562 supplement use and, 7, 36, 61, 68, 79, 143, 145, 562, 575 uses, 5, 7, 35-36, 61, 554, 558, 561-562, 563-564 Total Diet Study arsenic, 57, 658-659 copper, 57, 660-661 description of, 56 iodine, 57, 283-284, 662-663 iron, 57, 664-665 manganese, 57, 394, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 414, 666-667 molybdenum, 432 nickel, 57, 523, 668-669 silicon, 57, 530, 670-671 vanadium, 533 vitamin K, 57, 178, 183, 185, 654-657 zinc, 57, 672-673 Total parenteral nutrition (TPN)
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From page 763... ...
, 251, 538 V Vanadium absorption and transport, 533 acute toxicity, 535 adolescents, 534, 542 adults, 17, 27, 533, 534, 539-541, 542 adverse effects, 534, 535-539 animal studies, 532, 535-537, 539-540 athletes' use of, 535, 537, 539 body pools, 533 carcinogenicity, 538 cardiovascular effects, 537 children, 534, 541 data selection, 539-540 and diabetes, 532, 534, 535, 536, 539, 542 dose-response assessment for ULs, 539542 in drinking water, 535 DRls, 2, 6, 533, 576 elderly people, 533, 534 EPA oral reference dose, 538 excretion, 533 exposure assessment, 542 and fatigue and lethargy, 538 and ferritin, 533 food sources, 533-534 function, 45, 532, 543 gastrointestinal effects, 536, 539 gender and, 636-637 and glucose metabolism, 532 and green tongue, 538 hazard identification, 534-539 hematological effects, 536-537 and hormone metabolism, 532 human studies, 535, 536, 537-538 infants, 534, 541 insulin-like properties, 45, 532, 534 intakes, 57, 534, 542, 636-637 lactation, 542 by life-stage group, 27, 533, 539-542, 636-637 and lipid metabolism, 532
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From page 764... ...
764 and liver congestion, 535 metabolism, 533 neurological effects, 538 NOAEL/LOAEL, 540 and plasma urea and uric acid, 535, 540 pregnancy, 542 renal toxicity, 535-536, 538-539, 540, 541 reproductive effects, 532, 537 research recommendations, 28, 543, 583 risk characterization, 542 and serum urea and creatinine, 535, 540 supplements, 57, 532, 534, 535, 539, 542, 543, 636-637 thyroperoxidase and, 532 toxic compounds, 535 and transferrin, 533 ULs, 17, 27, 534-542, 576 uncertainty assessment, 540-541 units, 709 Vegetarians bioavailability of nutrients, 479, 572, 574 boron, 520 elderly people, 479-480 iron, 315, 351, 574 lacto-ovo, 451, 706 manganese, 408, 412, 414 vitamin A, 106-107, 119, 120, 123, 134135, 568 Very low density lipoproteins vitamin A and, 93-94 vitamin K and, 163 Vision, 10, 44, 82, 84-85, 87-88, 95, 119 Vitamin A See also Provitamin A carotenoids absorption and transport, 70, 85, 8694, 106-107, 108, 116 adolescents, 112-113, 116, 117, 122, 125, 142, 144-145 adults, 10, 16, 21, 26, 56-57, 82, 94-95, 100-102, 113-115, 121, 123, 125, 126-129, 142-143 adverse effects, 18, 118, 125, 126-132, 140-141 AIs, 111, 145 alcohol consumption and, 109, 118, 128, 133, 134-139, 145 animal studies, 85, 95-96, 98, 104, 105, 108, 109, 121, 126 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES bioavailability, 87-90, 107, 146 bioconversion of carotenoids to, 2, 8283, 86-93, 565 and birth defects, 128-133 body stores, 10, 21, 85, 94-95, 99, 103104, 108, 109, 112, 114, 123 and bone mineral density, 126-128, 133 and cancer, 85, 96 children, 21, 51-52, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 106-107, 108, 112-113, 121, 122, 125, 129, 132, 144-145 conjunctival impression cytology, 105 critical endpoint, 146 and dark adaptation, 10, 21, 87-89, 95, 97-99, 121, 123, 300-301, 568 data selection, 133, 142-143 deficiency effects, 82, 87-88, 95-97, 119, 268 depletion/repletion studies, 88-89, 122 in developing countries, 94, 95, 96-97, 112, 118-122, 145 and diarrhea, 96, 97, 107, 118 dietary fat and, 70, 106-107, 118, 121 dose-response assessment for ULs, 133, 138-145 EARs, 8-9, 82, 103, 113, 115, 116, 117, 567, 568 eldely people, 166, 167, 182, 186 and embryonic development, 82, 85, 95-96 epidemiological studies, 126-128, 133 and epithelial cell integrity, 44, 85, 96, 105 evidence considered in setting EAR, 83, 113-117, 121 excretion, 93-94, 114, 118-119 exposure assessment, 145 factors affecting requirement, 106-110 fetal, 116, 128-129 food composition determinations, 124, 565-566 food sources, 82, 84, 104, 122, 132, 562, 565 forms of, 83 in fortified foods, 119, 145 function, 10, 44, 82, 84-86, 568 gastroenteritis and, 107 gender and, 8-9, 10, 56-57, 82, 83, 95, 96, 113, 114, 115, 122, 132, 144145, 608-613, 674-675, 686-689, 692693
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From page 765... ...
See also ascorbic acid
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From page 766... ...
, 162, 166, 180-182, 184, 186 adults (51+) , 166, 167, 181, 182, 186 aging and, 166, 167, 168, 170 AIs, 10-11, 162, 177, 179, 180, 182, 183, 558, 561, 562-563, 564 animal studies, 172, 173, 175-176, 188 and atherosclerosis, 173 bioavailability, 163, 173-174, 186, 189, 568 and blood coagulation, 10, 163, 164, 165-168, 175, 176, 177, 181-182 body stores, 164 and bone metabolism, 10, 23-24, 162, 169, 170, 172, 189, 583-584 and calcium excretion, 24, 172 and cancer, 176-177, 187-188 y-carboxyglutamyl residues, 163, 167, 172, 173, 174, 189 children, 176, 180, 184-185 deficiency, 164-165, 174, 176, 180, 396 dependency, 177 depletion/repletion studies, 167 dietary fat and, 163, 173-174, 185-186 dose-response assessment for ULs, 188 epidemiological studies, 171, 188 excretion, 24, 163-164, 167 exposure assessment, 188 and factor VII activity, 163, 166 factors affecting requirement, 173-176 fetal, 182 food sources, 163, 173-174, 184-186 forms of, 24, 162, 163, 173, 174, 185 function, 10, 44, 162, 163 gender and, 10-11, 162, 167, 182, 186, 614-617, 654-657 hazard identification, 187-188 human feeding studies, 164-165 in human milk, 177-180, 183-184 indicators of adequacy, 22-24, 165-173 infants, 176-180, 184-185, 187-188 intakes, 10-11, 57, 174, 175, 177, 181182, 183-185, 186-187, 188, 614-617, 654-657 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES interaction with drugs, 172, 174-175, 568 interaction with other nutrients, 24, 163, 172, 173-174, 175-176 international comparisons, 187 intervention trials, 24, 168, 171-173 laboratory assays, 168 lactation, 177, 183-184 by life-stage group, 10-11, 176-184, 614617, 654-657 malabsorption syndromes and, 174, 180 manganese and, 396 metabolism, 163-164 method used to set AIs, 10-11, 177-179, 180-184 methodological issues, 23-24, 166, 168, 169, 171, 172, 184, 186 and osteocalcin 7-carboxylation, 23, 163, 168-170, 172, 173, 189 and osteoporosis, 23-24, 170-173 plasma/serum concentrations, 166, 170, 174 pregnancy, 182-183, 188 prevalence of inadequacy, 561 processing of foods and, 184-186 and prothrombin, 163, 164, 165-168, 175, 176, 177, 181-182 research recommendations, 189, 583584 retinoids and, 176 special considerations, 179-180 supplements, 167, 169, 172, 173-174, 187, 189, 396, 568, 616-617 synthetic, 162, 164, 187 ULs, 7, 18, 36, 76, 78, 162, 187-189 unit conversion, 709 and vitamin A, 176 vitamin E antagonism, 175-176 W Warfarin, 172, 174-175, 568 Water purification tablets, 268 Weight.
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From page 767... ...
INDEX athletes, 352 autoimmune thyroid disease, 283 blood donation, 352 bone mineral density, 126-128, 171, 172 boron, 511 cancer, 371 chromium, 212 copper, 240, 245, 246 ethanol metabolism, 475 hemoglobin concentrations, 305, 342 hormone replacement therapy, 350351, 573 institutionalized, 171 iodine, 278, 283 iron, 21, 290, 291, 305, 309, 332, 333, 334-337, 339-340, 341-343, 371, 378, 570-572, 700, 703 LDL concentrations, 482 manganese, 399, 400, 401, 409 menopause, 333 molybdenum, 424 night blindness, 95 oral contraceptives, 334-335, 343, 350, 700, 703 osteocalcin y-carboxylation, 172, 173 osteoporosis, 172, 396 postmenopausal, 127, 172, 173, 343, 350-351, 359, 378, 475, 511, 573, 700, 703 serum ferritin, 302-303 serum transferrin, 304 smokers, 371 supplements, 378, 409 vitamin A, 95, 126-128, 133, 138 vitamin K, 172, 173, 186, 187, 188 zinc, 474, 475, 481, 482, 488 World Health Organization copper recommendations, 248 definition of adverse effect, 60 definition of requirement, 29-30 iodine deficiency data, 262, 263, 265 vitamin A recommendations, 97 Working Group on Infant Growth, 320 xerophthalmia classifications, 95 zinc recommendations, 458, 572 X Xanthine dehydrogenase, 422 Xanthine oxidase, 420 767 Xerophthalmia, 10, 85, 95, 97, 105, 108109, 112 Xylosyltransferases, 394 z Zeaxanthin, 123, 602-603 Z nc absorption and transport, 15, 357-358, 445, 447-449, 450-451, 454-458, 462, 464-465, 472-473, 479, 483 acute effects, 482 adolescents, 451, 469-470, 476-479, 486-487 adults, 17, 27, 56-57, 234, 442, 471-475, 483-486, 574 adverse effects, 18, 482-483, 558 AIs, 24-25, 462 albumin and, 445, 446, 454, 473, 474 alcohol consumption and, 475, 480 and alkaline phosphatase activity, 443, 453, 477 animal studies, 108, 455 arsenic and, 506 balance studies, 445, 448, 455, 456, 458, 472, 474, 480 bioavailability, 444-445, 447, 448, 454455, 457, 458, 462, 473, 479, 572, 574-575, 576 body pool size and turnover rate, 357, 445, 446, 450-451, 463 calcium and, 455-456, 457, 458, 462, 479, 480 and carbohydrate utilization, 444 carcinogenicity, 483 catalytic activities, 15, 443, 452-453 cellular accumulation, 443 children, 449-450, 452, 454, 463-469, 486-487 and cholesterol, 481, 482, 486 and cognitive function, 444, 445, 449 and copper status, 225, 234, 246, 443, 456, 458, 481, 482, 484-488, 558 in cow milk, 457, 462 and dark adaptation, 108-109 data selection, 483-484, 486 deficiency effects, 15, 97, 99, 108-109, 442, 444, 446-447, 462, 506 defined, 443 depletion/repletion studies, 108, 473474
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From page 768... ...
768 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES in developing countries, 488 dietary fiber and, 458, 480 dietary protein and, 457, 458 dose-response assessment for ULs, 483488 in drinking water, 483 EARs, 24-25, 466, 468, 469, 470, 475, 477, 479 elderly people, 451, 474-475, 479, 559, 562 endogenous losses, 446, 448, 449, 462, 463, 469, 471-473, 476 and enzyme (zinc-dependent) activity, 15, 443, 452-453 in erythrocytes, 442, 451, 452, 453, 473, 482 evidence considered in setting EAR, 463-466, 467-470, 471-475, 476-479 excretion, 446, 448, 463-464, 471-473 exposure assessment, 487 factorial analysis, 15, 442, 447, 462, 463, 467, 468, 469-470, 471-473, 476 factors affecting requirement, 454-458 fasting/starvation and, 446, 448, 451 fetal, 477 finger proteins, 443, 444, 454 folate and, 456 food composition data, 560 food sources, 463, 479, 480 fortified foods, 480, 575 fractional absorption method, 15, 447448, 449, 450, 462, 463, 468, 469, 472, 473, 474, 476, 478 functions, 15, 44, 108, 442-444 and gastrointestinal distress, 482 gender and, 15, 56-57, 442, 469, 470, 471-472, 473-474, 475, 480-481, 482, 488, 638-641, 652-653, 672-673, 678679 and gene expression, 15, 442, 443, 454 gene markers of status, 453 and growth velocity, 444, 446-447, 449450, 452, 454, 462, 464, 465-466, 467-468 in hair, 452, 480 hazard identification, 481-483 and hepatic proteins, 454 and hormone metabolism, 443, 444, 454 in human milk, 6, 51, 457, 460-462, 463, 465, 477-478 and immune function, 443, 444, 447, 449, 453, 474-475, 481, 482, 488 indicators of adequacy, 24-25, 447-454, 488-489 infants, 51, 234, 458-466, 486-487 and infection, 445 intakes, 57, 442, 463, 466, 467, 480481, 487, 559, 562, 574-575, 638641, 652-653, 672-673, 678-679 interactions with other nutrients, 108109, 455-457, 458, 462, 479, 480, 482-483, 506 international comparisons, 476 intestinal losses, 448, 456, 463-464, 472, 476 and iron, 304, 357-358, 373, 455, 458, 482-483 laboratory assays, 452, 471, 474 lactation, 477-479, 487, 488 by life-stage group, 24-25, 27, 458-480, 483-487, 638-641, 652-653, 672-673, 678-679 and lipoproteins, 482 malabsorption syndromes, 445, 446, 457 and Menke's disease, 488 menstrual losses, 446, 448, 469, 471-472 metabolism, 445-446, 474 metalloenzymes, 443 and metallothionein, 234, 443, 444, 453, 456, 473 method used to set AI, 459, 462 method used to set EAR, 15, 442, 463, 467, 468, 469-470, 476, 572 methodological issues, 452, 476 MTF1 binding, 443 NOAEL/LOAEL, 484-486 and 5'-nucleotidase activity, 453, 473474 phosphorus and, 455-456, 457 physic acid/phytates and, 444, 451, 452, 456, 457-458, 479, 480, 572, 576 picolinic acid and, 458 plasma concentrations, 445-446, 447, 450-452, 455, 473, 476, 480 pre-albumin and, 454, 473 pregnancy, 447, 476-477, 487, 488 protein-energy deficiency and, 108 radiotracer studies, 357-358, 455, 472, 489 RDAs, 15, 24-25, 442, 466, 468, 469, 470, 475, 477, 479, 557, 574 regulatory role, 15, 443-444, 454
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From page 769... ...
INDEX reproductive effects, 444, 447, 476, 483 research recommendations, 487-488 and retinal binding protein, 454, 473 risk characterization, 487 serum concentrations, 454, 474, 476, 480 special considerations, 462, 479-480, 487 and stress response, 444, 445, 489 structural role, 15, 443 superoxide dismutase activity, 442, 443, 453, 482, 483 supplements, 56-57, 108, 234, 401, 444, 447, 449-450, 452, 453, 454, 456, 465-466, 467, 476, 478-479, 481, 482, 483, 488, 489, 557, 560, 562, 575 769 and teratogenesis, 444 and testosterone, 454 and thyroxin, 454, 473 trauma and, 445, 446 and tyrosine kinase, 443 ULs, 18, 2, 17, 27, 442, 481-488, 561562, 574 uncertainty assessment, 486-487 units, 709 urinary losses, 446, 463, 471, 480 vegetarianis, 451, 479-480, 572, 574 and vitamin A, 97, 99, 104, 106, 108109 WHO requirements, 458 and Wilson's disease, 234, 456, 488
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From page 770... ...
To calculate RAEs from REs of provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1 RAE.
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From page 772... ...
Table Continucci FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD, INSTITUTE OF MEDICINENATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES: RECOMMENDED INTAKES FOR INDIVIDUALS, ELEMENTS Life Stage Calcium Chromium Copper Fluoride Iodine Iron Magnesiu Group (mg/d)
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From page 773... ...
Iron Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Phosphorus Selenium Zinc (mg/d)
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Key Terms
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