Enhancing Human Performance Issues, Theories, and Techniques (1988) / Chapter Skim
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E Military Applications of Scientific Information
E Military Applications of Scientific Information
Pages 262-281
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From page 262... ...
One common representation of the ideal process is provided by the Department of Defense research and development funding taxonomy, which defines the process in terms of the four funding steps shown in Figure E-1. In this model, the research and development process is represented by a funding continuum ranging from basic science through engineering development.
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From page 263... ...
Individuals and organizations within the development continuum complain of deficiencies in the other sectors. Basic scientists cannot understand why their theories or findings have not been applied, and applied scientists question why basic scientists don't work on topics with more application potential (Weinstein, 19861.
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From page 264... ...
In this appendix, a within-step source of error refers to an error of either type that occurs as a result of the operations performed inside any of the boxes shown in Figure E-1; a between-step source of error refers to either type of error that occurs as a function of the procedures involved in handing off a project from one level to another level (represented by the arrows in Figure E-11. WITHIN-STEP SOURCES OF ERROR In general, these sources of error refer to traditional research design problems.
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From page 265... ...
DECISIONS LEADING TO BASIC RESEARCH An imperfect mechanism is involved in all of the transitions shown in Figure E-2: namely, human decision making. Although the basic research scientist, the applied scientist, and the evaluator all use techniques designed to eliminate, measure, or at least attempt to minimize various sources of error, it is nevertheless true that decisions about what ideas find their way to useful products are still based on human decision making and, consequently, are vulnerable to the imperfections and potential biases of that process (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974; Lichtenstein et al., 1978; Slovic, 1972; Kahneman and Tversky, 19791.
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From page 266... ...
APPENDIX E Advanced Development 1. What gets selected for engineering development: How effective Is the prototype?
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4. There may be biases on the part of some reviewers to reject proposals that are radically different from the existing literature, have little or no empirical support, or are generated by nontraditional sources.
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The potential danger is that, if proposals that offer to ~ ~ · · 1 1 _ ^~ _ _C' ~ __~ _~:~1 ~ +~ 1~D investigate simple empirical relat~onsn~ps are rejectee oe`;ause my a theoretical basis, many potentially useful and applicable research proposals may never be funded. Further exacerbating the problem, investigators submitting research proposals are asked to Justify weir research.
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From page 269... ...
Ongoing dialogue would help the applied scientist anticipate and plan applications based on promising basic research findings, would help the basic scientist target research for specific applications, and would help the basic science funding reviewer identify areas in which considerable needs and opportunities exist. It should be noted that, while such communication does exist, as evidenced by the work of this committee, more is needed.
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From page 270... ...
DECISIONS LEADING TO ADVANCED DEVELOPMENT After a promising concept has been tested for application value and some initial development toward a target application has been made, there are two possible outcomes: either the results prove sufficiently promising to warrant consideration for early development, or they do not. Entering initial development is an important decision, because it means starting a machine that is hard to stop.
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From page 271... ...
Finally, B represents all failures that are due to methodological shortcomings, plus all outcomes based on principles with low external validity, plus all instances in which inappropriate applications were made based on sound concepts. In summary, one important additional requirement Application Outcome l Success ~ Failure Foundation In Basic Sound ~A ~B Science Unsound FIGURE E-3 Decision matrix depicting various outcomes from applied experiments based on sound or unsound concepts from basic science.
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From page 272... ...
because such an outcome would reflect negatively on a sound, possibly applicable concept that simply was misapplied (assuming that basic scientists minimize the chances of C and D)
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From page 273... ...
First, as in any organization, there will probably be inertial resistance to new approaches (e.g., Schon, 1969~. Consequently, the noncommissioned officers must be convinced that the new technique holds advantages that far exceed any possible additional work.
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DECISIONS LEADING TO ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT If the early development process is successful, the corresponding evaluations of effectiveness show significant effects, and the implementation path looks promising, then chances are high that a project will
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From page 275... ...
One important subset involves complex decisions about vendor selection. Another major subset involves complex decisions about logistics (e.g., how many are needed, how will they be distributed, how will they be maintained, replaced, and so on)
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From page 276... ...
Some time ago, decisions were made that virtually eliminated precise feedback about shot location. This was probably an unintended side effect of moving to more realistic "field fire" techniques, in which realistic targets are randomly raised and fall when hit.
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From page 277... ...
Such technology may provide excellent transfer vehicles for various techniques. For example, rifle simulators allow safe, realistic practice with precise shot location and other kinds of feedback that were not possible previously (Schroeder, 19871.
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From page 278... ...
The evolution from the basic science laboratory to a useful Army product was shown to be a relatively complex process. The major steps involved in Army research and development were identified in Figure E-1 to be basic research, applied research and exploratory development, advanced development, and engineering development.
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From page 279... ...
More communication is needed at all stages of development among the basic scientist, the applied scientist, the engineer, and the user. The reviews of scientific support for these techniques, which are provided in this report, are critical and necessary; however, given a scientifically defensible foundation, similar reviews by applied scientists and potential users are equally important.
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From page 280... ...
Drucker, A.J. 1976 Military Research Product Utilization.
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From page 281... ...
U.S. Department of the Army 1981 Organization and Functions of the US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.
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