Predicting Invasions of Nonindigenous Plants and Plant Pests (2002) / Chapter Skim
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2 Immigration: Predicting the Mode and Pathways of Introduction
2 Immigration: Predicting the Mode and Pathways of Introduction
Pages 19-40
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From page 19... ...
Santayana's admonition that "those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it" applies as well to predicting future nonindigenous threats to plants in the United States as it does to interactions among nations. We can safely predict that future introductions of nonindigenous invasive plants and plant pests will increase, driven by the seemingly inexorable growth in international travel and trade.
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From page 20... ...
The implications of what we understand about pathways and modes depend on whether we are considering nonindigenous plants, arthropods, or plant pathogens. A chief distinction is that plants are usually introduced deliberately; arthropods and plant pathogens, except those introduced as agents of biological control or for confined research or public display (for example, in insectaria)
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From page 21... ...
1990~. When Polynesians colonized Hawaii some 1500 years ago, they brought several dozen plant species with them (Nagata 1985)
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From page 22... ...
Accidental Introductions Plants Humans have long facilitated the accidental introduction of nonindigenous species of plants and their associated pests into new ranges in the United States. As early as 1672, Josselyn recorded the naturalization of several dozen nonindigenous plant species in New England (Mack and Lonsdale 2001~.
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From page 23... ...
With changes in production, shipping, and inspection practices, the rate of accidental introduction of nonindigenous plants has decreased. Seawater has replaced soil for ship ballast, eliminating a mode by which soil and soil-based nonindigenous species are transported.
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Less than 15% of the nonindigenous insects established in the United States or Canada are from Central America or South America, despite these regions' proximity to the United States (Simberloff 1986, 1989~. The disproportionate establishment of European insects is consistent with the biogeographic and climatic similarity between North America and Europe and the high level of commerce between the two continents over the last five centuries (Leibhold et al.
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From page 25... ...
During the 1970s, however, the number of newly introduced plant pathogens jumped to 18. Possible explanations include the globalization of agriculture, increasing commercial air traffic, and increased movements of seeds and plant material by the private sector spurred on by new intellectual property rights to plant varieties.
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From page 26... ...
. Deliberate Introductions Plants Since the second half of the 19th century, most nonindigenous plants in the United States have been introduced deliberately.
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From page 27... ...
Insects and Pathogens Insects have been deliberately introduced into the United States for biological pest control, for pollination, and as pets. There are many nonindigenous arthropod species in the pet trade; most are produced domestically, but there is still a considerable volume of importation for pets, "feeder" organisms (live reptile food)
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From page 28... ...
Some have argued that the increasing number of biological control experiments may be making pest control less effective and riskier (McEvoy and Coombs 1999~. Although most nonindigenous insects and pathogens that are plant pests have been accidentally introduced, biological control organisms have themselves become pests on occasion.
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From page 29... ...
In addition, human travelers contribute to the inflow of pathogens by arriving with contaminated plants and foods. In one week in May 1990, an inspection of 16,997 passengers arriving on international flights at the Los Angeles International Airport led to the interception of 1357 lots of fruits and vegetables and 325 lots of animal products, for a total of 2635 kg of contraband plant material (U.S.
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From page 30... ...
As outlined below, such desire for ornamental plants creates the chief threat of entry, establishment, and spread of detrimental nonindigenous plant species. In 1997, the floriculture and horticulture industries had cash receipts of $11.2 billion (USDA/ERS 1999~.
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From page 31... ...
Predicting problem species in this group is somewhat easier than predicting invasive species arising from horticultural introductions. Many of the traits sought by restoration workers in new imports also enhance naturalization and invasiveness: rapid growth, lack of specificity to soil type, low soil-nutrient requirements, deep roots, frost tolerance, vigorous vegetative propagation in addition to sexual reproduction, fibrous root system, and, perhaps worst, a fruit that shatters on maturity (Mack 1989 and references therein)
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From page 32... ...
ports of entry is perhaps the best source of information on the number and identity of nonindigenous plant pests arriving in the United States. The Port Information
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From page 33... ...
For example, Haack and Cavey (1997) used PIN data to assess nonindigenous insects arriving in the United States on wood packing and crating material.
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From page 34... ...
Asian countries could be an increasingly important source of nonindigenous insects, especially if green wood continues to be used as a packing material for imported goods (Haack and Cavey 1997~. Recently implemented regulations require that wooden crates, dunnage, and related wood packing material originating in China be fumigated, kiln-dried, or treated with preservatives; and standards were set for the maximal amount of permissible bark on wood packing material (USDA/APHIS 1998~.
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From page 36... ...
Persistent patterns could identify commodities that require enhanced regulation or inspection before the commodities enter or are distributed in the United States. Strengthening the quality of the PIN database and increasing the availability of the data for analysis of patterns or traits associated with inadvertent introductions of plant pests is a potentially important first step in developing better hypotheses about the characteristics of potential invaders and the pathways by which they arrive at the borders of the United States.
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From page 37... ...
China: A Likely Source of Many New Species in the United States In predicting future invasive plants, arthropods, and plant pathogens, China should be considered a prime donor region. Identifying China as a major source of future immigrants with the potential to become invasive has ecological, historic, and economic explanations.
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From page 38... ...
In November 2001, China hosted its first international exhibition in Beijing to promote the export of Chinese seed and germplasm. The increase in trade creates opportunities for the introduction not only of plants, but also of pathogens, such as those associated with crop species, and of insects, such as the Asian long-horned beetle, which arrived in wood packing material.
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From page 39... ...
· Arrival rates of nonindigenous arthropods and pathogens are probably related to the abundance of the species in their native habitats, the geographic areas of their native habitats, their association with plant materials that are likely to be imported into the United States, and the volume of trade between donor countries and the United States . Most plants that arrive in the United States are intentionally introduced.
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From page 40... ...
40 PREDICTING INVASIONS OF NONINDIGENOUS PLANTS AND PLANT PESTS · The widespread use of containers in shipping, the growth of international airline commerce, and the illegal transportation of plant materials into the United States increase the likelihood that nonindigenous plant pests will survive transit to the United States and increase the difficulty of intercepting plant pests.
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