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8 Evidence of Dietary Risk among Low-Income Women and Children
Pages 115-128

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From page 115...
... A discussion of infants has been omitted since this report does not cover dietary risk for this high-risk group. NUTRITIONAL VULNERABILITY OF GROUPS SERVED BY WIC Pregnant and Lactating Women The need for food energy and the Estimated Average Requirements (EARs)
From page 116...
... Likewise, increasing maternal intake of omega-3 fatty acids is associated with increased gestation duration (Allen and Harris, 2001) , improved fetal neurological development (Innis, 2000)
From page 117...
... In 1990, 19 percent of pregnant women in WIC were obese (Kim et al., 1992~, but by 1994, the prevalence of obesity had increased to 22 percent (Randall et al., 1995~. A more recent analysis of data on pregnant women enrolled in the Ohio and Kentucky WIC programs, using current adult criteria for obesity (BMI 2 30 kg/m2)
From page 118...
... However, Alaimo and colleagues, in a series of analyses using data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, have examined several child outcomes in relation to household food insufficiency (living in a family that reports "sometimes or often not getting enough food to eat") a state thought to be different and more adverse than food insecurity (Carleson and Briefel, 1995~.
From page 119...
... The well-known protective effect of folio acid intake on risk of neural tube defects appears to be absent among obese women (Straw et al., 1996, Waller et al., 1994, Werler et al., 1996~. While the reasons for this effect have yet to be identified, a similar lack of benefit was observed with zinc and obesity: risk of low birth weight was decreased in normal weight, but not in obese women receiving supplemental zinc (Goldenberg et al., 1995~.
From page 120...
... This section covers dietary intake information about women and children in general, and about those served by WIC. Dietary Intake of the General Population Intakes Below the Estimated Average Requirement For most nutrients, the recommended method to assess the adequacy of nutrient intake by a population is a three-step process: 1.
From page 121...
... The dietary intake data used for those tables are from the 1994-1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) for phosphorus and magnesium and from the 1988-1994 Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III)
From page 122...
... SOURCE: IOM (1997, 1998, 2000b, 2001) TABLE 8-2 Cutoff Values Used by Sigma One Corporation to Identify Dietary Risk, by Participant Category and Food Group Number of Servings by Participant Category Pregnant Lactating Postpartum Children Children Food Category Women Women Women Ages 1-3 yra Age 4 yra Milk products 3 3 2 4 4 Meat and beans 3 3 2 2 2 group Grains 6 6 6 6 6 Total fruits and 5 5 5 5 5 vegetables Vitamin A foods 1 1 1 1 1 Vitamin C foods 1 1 1 1 1 Other fruits and 3 3 3 3 3 vegetables a Serving size typically equals one-half of the adult serving, except for the milk group.
From page 123...
... , in a rigorous analysis of 1989-1991 CSFII data, found that none of the children ages 2 to 5 years (n = 1,028) met the minimum recommendations for all five food groups, after allowing for smaller portion sizes of grains, fruits, vegetables, and meats.
From page 124...
... However, nutrients identified as problematic included calcium, iron, folio acid, zinc, and magnesium during pregnancy, vitamin C and zinc during lactation, and iron, calcium, and magnesium in nonbreastteeding, postpartum women. The overall diet of pregnant and postpartum WIC participants tended to be low in calories (a mean of 70-89 percent of the recommended energy allowance)
From page 125...
... , whereas those with household incomes at or above 300 percent of poverty had average variety scores of 7.9. Those from the lowest-income households also had lower average scores for saturated fat (5.7)
From page 126...
... The inverse relationship between quality of intake and income is well documented. The diets of many low-income women and children are of a low nutrient density, contain more fat and saturated fat than recommended by the Dietary Guidelines, and fail to meet food group recommendations specified by the Food Guide Pyramid, especially in the fruit and vegetable groups.
From page 127...
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