Oil in the Sea III Inputs, Fates, and Effects (2003) / Chapter Skim
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Pages 19-64
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From page 19... ...
As this fossil fuel is extracted, refined, transported, distributed, or consumed, spills and other releases occur. In addition, natural processes can result in seepage of crude oil from geologic formations below the seafloor to the overlying water column (see Chapter 3 for greater detail about natural and anthropogenic inputs)
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From page 20... ...
compounds found in crude oil are often referred to as BTEX, or benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (NRC, 1985; Speight, 1991~. Aromatic hydrocarbons may account for about 1 to 20 percent of the total hydrocarbons in crude oil.
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From page 21... ...
Specifically, in those cases where reasonable comparisons can be made to estimates developed in earlier studies, they have value as a measure of the effectiveness of already implemented policies designed to reduce petroleum pollution. Much of what is known about the impacts of petroleum hydrocarbons comes from studies of catastrophic oil spills and chronic seeps.
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From page 22... ...
Although there is a reasonable understanding of the amount of petroleum hydrocarbons released to the coastal ocean, and one can estimate the impact of spilled petroleum under previously studied conditions, generalizing these findings to predict hydrocarbon impacts from all sources on North American coastal waters is currently not possible.
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From page 23... ...
Sources of chronic exposures include point sources, such as natural seeps, a leaking pipeline,
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From page 24... ...
The disappearance of the mussels may be the result of predation (perhaps by sea otters) or natural mortality.
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UNDERSTANDING THE RISK 25 E F PHOTO 4 (continued)
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From page 26... ...
26 42°07'30 OIL IN THE SEA III 70~7'30" 70~7'30" 42°07'30" 42°CO'C0" FIGURE 2-1 Environmental Sensitivity Index Map, with legend, for Provincetown Harbor, Cape Cod, Massachusetts (courtesy Research Planning, Inch.
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From page 28... ...
Max. Natural Seeps 160 160 80 240 600 200 2000 Extraction of Petroleum 3.0 3.0 2.3 4.3 38 20 62 Platforms 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.86 0.29 1.4 Atmospheric deposition 0.12 0.12 0.07 0.45 1.3 0.38 2.6 Produced waters 2.7 2.7 2.1 3.7 36 19 58 Transportation of Petroleum 9.1 7.4 7.4 11 150 120 260 Pipeline spills 1.9 1.7 1.7 2.1 12 6.1 37 Tank vessel spills 5.3 4.0 4.0 6.4 100 93 130 Operational discharges (cargo washings)
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From page 29... ...
The temporal and spatial discharge patterns are different from other sources, with most recreational boating being concentrated in the summer months and in coastal waters. Chronic contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons from sources other than oil spills may be found in many coastal urban areas as a result of non-point source petroleum spillage, the burning of fossil fuels, and municipal wastewater discharges.
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From page 30... ...
The current study used reported data on produced water volume for North America and the North Sea, and extrapolations to worldwide production. Also, oil content was based on actual reported measurements in Natural seeps are a significant source in both reports.
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From page 31... ...
, calculating the additional loads to each region or worldwide from sludge disposal was deemed to be of limited value. sources of petroleum inputs, is an example of chronic persistence and toxicity beyond the observations made following oil spills.
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From page 32... ...
Many of the source types, including natural seeps, platforms, pipelines, produced waters, vessel spills, vessel operations, aircraft dumping, recreational marine vessels, vessels of less than 100 GT, and coastal facilities, PAH loadings were estimated as a fraction of the total petroleum hydrocarbon loadings, based on measured PAH content of crude oils and refined petroleum products (see Appendix J)
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From page 33... ...
Another source of petroleum hydrocarbon pollution in the extraction process is from produced waters. Presently, this is the largest source, approaching 2,700 tonnes per year into North American waters and 36,000 tonnes worldwide (Table 2-2~.
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From page 34... ...
Coast Guard and Minerals Management Service.) Solid black dots indicate spills included in the average, annual (1990-1999)
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From page 35... ...
Not ~ O Ahk:' ='MEXICC) 1°~ 0 Oil Spills 1985-1989 · Oil Spills 1990-1999 Vessel Name Spill Date SP;II Volume (tonnes)
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From page 36... ...
to the North American marine environment.
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From page 38... ...
r O.86 1.3 i\ 36 Platforms Atmospheric Deposition ~ Produced waters FIGURE 2-5 Relative average, annual input (1990-1999) of petroleum hydrocarbons (kilotonnes)
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From page 39... ...
. The total input of petroleum hydrocarbons to the marine environment by spills from pipelines to North American waters is estimated to be 1,900 tonnes per year (Fig.
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From page 40... ...
to the North American marine environment from sources associated with petroleum extraction.
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UNDERSTANDING THE RISK UNITED STATE ~ 1 HA ~ ~ CHART KEY Old - Not Determined Ha - Not Aoolicable
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From page 42... ...
Tank vessel spills, globally, still discharge some 100,000 tonnes per year of petroleum hydrocarbons into marine waters, and they are the largest input from petroleum transportation worldwide (Table 2-2, Figure 2-7~. OIL IN THE SEA III Operational Discharges (Cargo Washing)
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From page 43... ...
Non-tank Vessels Spills and Operational Discharges Spills from non-tank vessels 2100 GT represents a relatively small amount of discharge, contributing 1,200 tonnes per year in North America and 7,100 tonnes worldwide (Table 2-2~. In contrast, non-tank vessel operational discharges are a major source of petroleum hydrocarbons delivered to global marine waters, which is estimated to be 270,000 tonnes and represents the second highest input of petroleum hydrocarbons into the marine environment (Table 2-2~.
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From page 44... ...
to the North American marine environment from sources associated with the transport of petroleum.
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From page 45... ...
UNDERSTANDING THE RISK 45 UNITED :: ~' STATED G -n _ ._ CHART IFFY ~-1,Oo - O.7S 1-° -°.s c -°2s A , to rid - Not Determined Ha - Not Aoolicable
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From page 46... ...
~1 Atmospheric Deposition n Aircraft Dumping FIGURE 2-9 Relative average, annual input (1990-1999) of petroleum hydrocarbons (kilotonnes)
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From page 47... ...
was about 2,300 tonnes (or roughly 1 percent of the total load to North American waters, Table 2-5, Figure 2-12~. The dominant source in the area is atmospheric deposition associated with the consumption of petroleum hydrocarbons worldwide.
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From page 48... ...
of petroleum hydrocarbons (kilotonnes) to the North American marine environment from sources associated with the consumption of petroleum.
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UNDERSTANDING THE RISK 49 ~ jot Determined Ha - Not A~"lirAhl"
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From page 50... ...
so OIL IN THE SEA III Percent Change of People per Square Mile (1950-2000) 0.1-30.0 ~ 100.1-160.0 30.1-60.0 ~ 160.1-300.0 60.1-100.0 ~ > 300.0 no data People per Square Mile (2000)
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From page 51... ...
In addition, the heavy use of recreational marine vessels in some regions results in sub stantial loads of petroleum hydrocarbons, accounting for nearly 50 percent of the calculated load for waters off Cali fornia. Offshore, inputs are much smaller, with the signifi cant exception of offshore Southern California.
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From page 52... ...
Surprisingly, aircraft dumping is estimated to be one of the largest sources of oil into offshore areas, and inputs from spills from non-tank vessels are small but one-two orders of magnitude greater than spills from tankers. In coastal waters, seeps in southcentral Alaska are responsible for over 40 percent of the calculated inputs3 during the reporting period (1990-1999; Table 2-91.
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From page 53... ...
hRecreational vessels are defined in this study as being lim~ted to operations within 3 m~les of the coast (see Chapter 3 ar~d Appendix F) 53 Alaska represents a unique challenge to understanding petroleum hydrocarbons in the marine environment.
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From page 54... ...
54 OIL IN THE SEA III — UNITED FIGURE 2-13 Average, annual input (1990-1999) of petroleum hydrocarbons (kilotonnes)
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From page 55... ...
Coast Guard, cooperative programs with ship owners and the boating community, and active participation of the International Maritime Organization in developing effective international regulatory standards have contributed to the decline in oil spills and operational discharges. These efforts and relationships should be continued and further strengthened where appropriate.
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From page 57... ...
57 J K L Susan Seepsa na na na na na na Platforms na traceb trace na na na Atmospheric na trace na na na na Produced na trace na na na na Sum Extraction nac trace trace nac nac nac Pipelines Ned 39 trace trace trace O Tank vessel nd 150 trace 10 trace O Coastal facilities trace 62 26 10 31 69 Atmospheric trace trace trace trace trace trace Sun Transportation trace 2S0 35 23 42 73 Land-based 860 1900 2300 1600 29 65 Recreational vessels nde 280 320 1600 36 nd Vessels >1OOGT (spills) ndf 28 trace 35 26 trace Vessel >1OOGT (op discharge)
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From page 58... ...
Gasoline and lube oil inputs from two-stroke recreational vessels are a large marine source of petroleum hydrocarbons. These discharges are primarily gasoline and lube oil, which have high evaporation rates and low PAH levels.
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From page 59... ...
Coast Guard, and the USGS, should work with industry to develop and support a sys tematic and sustained research effort to further basic understanding of the processes that govern the fate and transport of petroleum hydrocarbons released into the marine environment from a variety of sources (not just spills)
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From page 61... ...
To assess the impacts attributable to different sources including oil spills and non-point sources, federal agencies, especially the USGS and EPA should work with state and local authorities to undertake regular monitoring of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH) and PAH inputs from air and water (especially rivers and harbors)
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From page 62... ...
There are demonstrable sublethal physiological effects of long-term, chronic releases of hydrocarbons into the marine environment. These have been found in areas affected by urban runoff, in areas where oil has been incorporated in sediments and then released back to the water column, and in production fields.
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From page 63... ...
11. Understanding Inputs, Fates, and Effects in Detail
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From page 64... ...
of petroleum hydrocarbons (kilolonnes) for the Canadian Arctic.
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