Making the Nation Safer The Role of Science and Technology in Countering Terrorism (2002) / Chapter Skim
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4. Toxic Chemicals and Explosive Materials
4. Toxic Chemicals and Explosive Materials
Pages 107-134
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From page 107... ...
This chapter describes some of the vulnerabilities associated with toxic, explosive, and flammable materials as weapons of terrorism and suggests ways to reduce these vulnerabilities with existing technology as well as through research 1Because plausible chemical attacks do not have the same potential for national-scale disaster posed by nuclear and some biological threats, and because a substantial number of people are already trained and equipped to deal with toxic chemicals, building a capability to deal with chemical attacks is more tractable than doing so for nuclear and biological attacks.
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From page 108... ...
Moreover, the potential for their use causes anxiety. While chemical agents may not have the potential to produce the widespread casualties and destruction that could be caused by epidemic biological agents or nuclear weapons, they are more readily available and can cause significant deaths and injuries and disruption in a local area.
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From page 109... ...
The Soviet Union reached a different conclusion and continued, up to the 1990s, to develop chemical weapons for military use. In fact, chemical weapons appeared to be a standard part of Soviet operational doctrine, with special utility in slowing and blunting offensive operations, 2Some biological and radioactive agents are occasionally considered in this chapter along with chemical agents because the responses to attacks with them would be similar.
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From page 110... ...
3At least one Middle Eastern country hostile to the United States that is, Ira~possesses and has used chemical weapons in military operations and against its own people. 4The technology of designed chemical weapons has been relatively static for a decade (since the collapse of the Soviet effort)
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From page 111... ...
Making chemical weapons requires some technical skill, but over time much of the information required to make these materials has drifted into the public domain. The most toxic of the common weapons the nerve agents can be made using relatively unsophisticated facilities and in quantities sufficient for terrorist attacks (although large-area attacks requiring tons of agents would require large-scale facilities available only to states or large corporations, not to individuals)
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From page 112... ...
Explosives and Flammable Agents Explosives, having many legitimate purposes and being relatively accessible, pose a significant terrorist threat (NRC, 1998~. They can be used in large quantities to produce mass destruction, as in the attack on the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, and in smaller quantities to destroy sensitive or symbolic targets such as airplanes, bridges, or key components of critical infrastructures (e.g., telecommunications networks, electric-power grids, and water supplies)
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From page 113... ...
Materials in the subway tunnels could be "pumped" through the city by the trains a particularly effective method for delivering powderized materials like anthrax, but it might also work for spreading chemical agents. GENERAL CAPABILITIES NEEDED TO HELP MITIGATE VULNERABILITIES Sensors and Operational Systems for Detecting and Characterizing Chemical Agents Improved and expanded use of sensors must play a major role in preventing catastrophic terrorism or, if attacks do occur, in minimizing their impacts.
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From page 114... ...
4 MAKING THE NATION SAFER · Sensors to detect chemical agents or nuclear materials in shipments (see Chapters 2 and 7~; . Sensors to check food, water, currency, and mail for contamination;
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From page 115... ...
Similarly, many industrial chemicals (e.g., chlorine, hydrochloric acid) that might be used as improvised chemical weapons are immediately apparent through smell or effects on eyes or mucus membranes at concentrations well below that required for serious toxicity (but if escape from them is not possible, the resulting damage to lungs becomes evident over time)
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From page 116... ...
might not have observable effects for years. Effective responses to chemical attacks, and to biological attacks as well, need to be tailored to the specific agent involved; thus the choice of the right sensors for the job at hand whether with respect to the time scale or to other factors is crucial.
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From page 117... ...
Model mechanisms for helping to bridge the gap between sensor research and the development of implementable systems include the NIST Advanced Technology Program (ATP) , the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR)
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From page 118... ...
Homogeneously dispersed contaminants may be removed by absorption,6 adsorption,7 chemical reaction/neutralization, or selective membrane filtration (Ho and Sirkar, 1992; Majumdar and Sirkar, 1988; Prasad and Sirkar, 1987; Way et al., 1982~. Absorbers and filters can be used both to prevent toxic chemicals 6Absorption is a process in which a material extracts one or more substances present in a mixture of gases or liquids, accompanied by changes in the materialts physical or chemical properties.
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From page 119... ...
Recommendation 4.5: Universities, companies, and federal agencies should work together to improve existing technologies and develop new ones for removing chemical contaminants from air and water. Research is especially needed on filter systems capable of treating large volumes, novel media that can help prevent toxic materials from entering facilities through ventilation systems, and methods to contain and neutralize clouds of airborne toxic materials.
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From page 120... ...
Robotic technologies could spare humans from dangerous work, substitute machine time for human time in surveillance, and perform other important functions. Robotic technologies have matured substantially in recent years, but the prospect of robots as autonomous systems, performing complex tasks without human supervision, seems somewhat remote.
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From page 121... ...
Aspects under examination include security checks of personnel, controlling access to sensitive areas and materials, increasing surveillance, reviewing and changing distribution routes, and reducing quantities of hazardous materials in storage and transit. The experience of large companies in preventing and responding to accidental releases of chemicals is relevant to defense against chemical terrorism; these companies are highly regulated with respect to the reporting and inspection of processes, products, record keeping, shipments, storage, and use, and they have much of the infrastructure required.
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From page 122... ...
Protecting Food Supplies Consumers in the United States are very sensitive to suggestions that the food supply might not be perfectly safe. Widely publicized episodes, such as the concern about the pesticide Alar on apples, debate about the safety of genetically engineered food, and ripple effects caused by the association of beef with mad cow disease, exemplify this highly charged social environment, and a good deal of attention is being paid to ensuring safety and purity throughout the various stages of food production, processing, and distribution.
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From page 123... ...
Recommendation 4.10: The FDA should act promptly to extend hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) methodology to enable it to deal effectively with deliberate contamination of the food supply.
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From page 124... ...
. Such controls are also mandated for producers of active agents subsequently compounded into medications and, to a limited degree, for the producers of excipients.l° Controls include physical management of material movement and use, especially inventory reconciliation; worker training and qualification for assigned tasks; and strict monitoring of water and air systems within production environments.
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From page 125... ...
Protecting Water Supplies Within the nation's infrastructure the U.S. water supply is probably not the most likely terrorist target for producing mass casualties, because the combination of high dilution and water treatment provides protection against many threats.
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From page 126... ...
Recommendation 4.15: The EPA should direct additional research to determine the persistence of pathogens, chemical contaminants, and other toxic materials in public water supplies in the presence of residual chlorine. Recommendation 4.16: NIST and industry associations should examine the possibility of sensor systems that would protect the public water supply.
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From page 127... ...
Communities should develop plans for backup, recovery, and repair of intentionally damaged water systems and for provision of emergency water supplies. Recommendation 4.17: The EPA should convene panels of experts to assess vulnerabilities and recommend corrective actions for the various components of water supply systems.
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From page 128... ...
28 MAKING THE NATION SAFER 12 and 13.) In some chemical attacks, still other agencies would be involved (e.g., the USDA for attacks on the food supply and the EPA where decontamination is required)
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From page 129... ...
Another important source of information for incident commanders is fast access to reliable expertise (sometimes called "reachback"~. Chemistry is technically complex, and first responders and their leaders cannot be expected to know the details for all possible chemical attacks.
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From page 130... ...
First, casualties still contaminated with chemical agents are likely to present at hospitals. To avoid contaminating medical personnel and facilities as well, there must be accepted protocols for decontaminating and handling these casualties.
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From page 131... ...
Recommendation 4.22: Under the guidance of the NIH, there should be a program to develop improved treatments for injuries that result from exposures to chemical agents. This program should have both an applied and a fundamental aspect: It should optimize existing protocols, using the most plausible threats, and it should increase our understanding of the general mechanisms of injury on exposure to toxic chemicals.
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From page 132... ...
Sustainable (green) chemistry the design, manufacture, and use of efficient, effective, safe, and environmentally benign chemical processes and products is now receiving widespread industry attention, though the need for considerable improvement remains.
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From page 133... ...
1990. "Vapour Barrier Assessment Programme for Delaying and Diluting Heavier-Than-Air HF Vapour Clouds in a Wind Tunnel Modeling Evaluation," Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, Vol.
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From page 134... ...
Linking Food Safety and Food Security," National Health Policy Forum, NHPF Issue Brief No.
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