Fairness and Effectiveness in Policing The Evidence (2004) / Chapter Skim
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2 Criminal Justice Research on Police
2 Criminal Justice Research on Police
Pages 20-46
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From page 20... ...
This chapter describes the scientific enterprise of police research that has developed since 1967 -- its scale, substantive coverage, methods, and the auspices under which it has been conducted. Special attention is paid to the body of research funded by the 1994 crime act in the final section.
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The cascade of peer-reviewed research on the police since 1967 has been part of the development of criminal justice studies generally. Of the 12 most highly regarded journals in criminology and police studies published today, only 3 existed before 1967.3 Altogether these journals have published over 6,900 articles dealing with the police and law enforcement, the larger part after 1967.4 Sociological Abstracts, which covers 2,500 journals and periodicals, lists 6,929 citations to material published between 1963 and 2001.
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During their entire publishing histories, these journals have published only 33 articles with "police" in the title. In addition to criminal justice journals, police research is also reported in three periodicals intended for police professionals: the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Police Chief Magazine, and Law Enforcement News.
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Although scholars continually deplore the absence of research about the behavior of police agencies as a whole, most analysis continues to focus on the behavior of individual police officers. In addition to discretion and its determinants, police research focused initially on evaluating the effectiveness of the standard strategies of policing, notably motorized and foot patrolling and rapid response to calls for service (Kelling et al., 1974; Trojanowicz, 1986)
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proposal, captured in the metaphor of broken windows, that police should help communities create a crime-deterrent environment by minimizing public disorder. With the advent of community policing in the 1980s, police scholarship underwent a dramatic change and became explicitly prescriptive.
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Although its findings were significantly modified by later research, the Minneapolis Spouse Assault Project is probably the single most influential research undertaken since 1967. During the 1990s, evaluations of the impact of police strategies on community safety expanded without a dominant focus -- drug crackdowns, community crime prevention, DARE, beat patrols, crime prevention education, and coordinated interagency crime prevention.
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Although the topics studied have varied in popularity over time, no intellectual thread disappears entirely in any period. Police research has consistently described police behavior, analyzed its determinants, evaluated its efficacy, and judged
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POLICE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES The early police researchers studied the police by "walking around" (Bittner, 1970)
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And both are essential to public accountability. Although ethnographic research is probably less popular today than it was in the 1960s and 1970s, the methodologies adopted by police researchers have been relatively stable over time.
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The research and development units of most police agencies serve instead as all-purpose staff for senior executives. Although few people who do scientific research on the police are government employees, the bulk of funding for police research comes from government.
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Department of Justice accounts for most of the federal government's investment in scientific police research, through the National Institute of Justice, the Office of Justice Programs, and the Office of Community Oriented Police Services. Over the past two decades, other federal research agencies, for example the National Science Foundation, have increasingly deferred to the Department of Justice with respect to criminal justice research.
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. The largest research grant from 1994 crime act monies was awarded to the Urban Institute -- $3,356,156 -- to evaluate the success of the COPS office in encouraging the adoption of community policing.
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3. Police officers' views toward community policing bear little relationship to their behavior, suggesting that imbuing officers with the philosophy of community policing will do little to advance its implementation.
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The purpose of these grants was to create partnerships between police agencies and research groups for the development and evaluation of new strategies for the delivery of police services. Despite the large investment in research on community policing, outcome evaluations and other research still cannot comprehensively and definitively provide a guide to the usefulness of this strategy.
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Police researchers in the United States are trained primarily in social science rather than law. Third, rigorous police research is done mostly by people who are employed outside of government.
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Research -- along with higher educational standards for recruits, encouragement of postgraduate degrees for promotion, and specialized in-service courses for managers -- has made American policing considerably more intelligent and less insular than it was when the president's crime commission reported in 1967. Police research has also made American police more accountable by opening them to outside opinions, by creating partnerships with independent observers, and by helping the public and its representatives to judge whether the police are fulfilling their mandate to provide security in accordance with the principles of a democratic society.
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4. Three professional police journals: FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin Police Chief Magazine Law Enforcement News.
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Crime Inequality Road safety Crime prevention Information technology Spouse abuse Criminal investigation Integrity Spouse assault Criminal justice International Strategy Criminal proceedings Leadership Structure Crowd control Management Supervision Deadly force Morale Tactic(s) Discipline Narcotics Technology Discretion Order maintenance Traffic Discrimination Organization Training Disorder Patrol Victimology Diversity Penology Women Domestic violence
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56 367 29 248 Gender 230 257 133 1 Gender bias 5 8 8 0 Grievance 29 79 10 2 Homosexuality 53 73 6 31
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CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESEARCH ON POLICE 39 TABLE 2A-1 Continued Sociology Criminal Justice Abstracts Abstracts 12 Research 3 Professional Keyword Data Base Data Base Journals Journals Human rights 74 111 5 5 Inequality 94 78 46 3 Information technology 30 21 1 6 Integrity 16 108 13 18 International 167 593 35 556 Leadership 91 282 23 45 Management 213 1,146 118 351 Morale 20 104 6 19 Narcotics 40 349 65 597 Order maintenance 31 64 8 0 Organization 850 2,091 236 134 Patrol 138 1,449 108 550 Penology 15 27 34 9 Police community relations 455 600 282 890 Prejudice 49 108 13 4 Problem-oriented policing 10 76 6 4 Public opinion 85 208 115 46 Quality of life 24 87 6 4 Race 371 651 151 19 Rank or ranks 84 336 13 19 Recruitment 79 338 15 18 Riot(s) 142 266 28 60 Road safety 1 8 3 0 Highway safety 2 14 0 22 Traffic safety 7 25 2 124 Spouse abuse 23 77 13 14 Spouse assault 4 16 3 0 Strategy 159 440 53 23 Structure 670 1,343 137 13 Supervision 54 377 66 25 Tactic(s)
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(3,239) Drugs 409 1,433 254 732 Narcotics 40 349 65 597 449 1,782 319 1,379 Domestic violence 163 440 81 82 Spouse assault 4 16 3 0 Battered women 129 92 8 3 296 548 92 85 Women 505 1,003 244 149 Gender 230 257 133 1 735 1,260 377 150 Police community relations 455 600 282 890 Public opinion 85 208 115 46 540 808 397 936 Evaluation 234 1,055 221 207 Effectiveness 217 925 85 32 451 1,980 306 239 Organization 850 2,091 236 134 Structure 670 1,343 137 13 Management 213 1,146 118 351 Leadership 91 282 23 35 Supervision 54 377 66 25 Budget(s)
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(1,839) International 167 593 35 556 Comparative 149 356 86 11 316 628 121 566 Community policing 177 570 68 75 POP 10 76 6 4 Order maintenance 31 64 8 0 Quality of life 24 87 6 4 242 797 88 83 (If police-community relations are added, then)
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42 FAIRNESS AND EFFECTIVENESS IN POLICING TABLE 2A-2 Continued Sociology Criminal Justice Abstracts Abstracts 12 Research 3 Professional Keyword Data Base Data Base Journals Journals Crime prevention 101 1,133 182 677 Disorder 87 300 35 4 Broken Windows 3 17 1 2 90 317 36 6 Ethics 63 283 82 102 Integrity 16 108 13 18 Corruption 124 463 70 192 Brutality 52 163 24 178 255 1,017 189 490 Human rights 74 111 5 5 Civil rights 98 138 27 110 172 249 33 115 Riot 142 266 28 60 Crowd control 7 22 10 45 149 288 38 105 Accountability 102 396 21 6 Discipline 119 398 60 124 221 794 81 130 Discretion 107 468 96 42 Firearms 56 367 29 248 Deadly force 17 170 19 54 73 537 48 302 Criminal investigation 29 80 61 375 NOTE: Keywords have been grouped into topics -- subject matter that involves more than one keyword.
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3 Discrimination 820 4 Women 735 5 Police community relations 540 6 Strategies, including COP 499 (with COP at 242 COP with c-p rels 782 Crime prevention 101)
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(1,239) 10 Strategy 819 11 Police-community relations 808 12 COP 797 13 Accountability/discipline 794 14 International/comparative 628 15 Domestic violence 548 16 Traffic 544 17 Firearms 537 18 Discretion 468 19 Technology 304 20 Riots 288 21 Human rights 249 22 Criminal investigation 80
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3 Police community relations 397 4 Women 377 5 Discrimination 342 6 Drugs 319 7 Evaluation 306 8 Ethics 189 9 Crime prevention 182 (with strategy and COP)
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4 Police community relations 936 5 Crime prevention 677 6 Traffic 614 7 International/comparative 566 8 Patrol 550 9 Ethics 490 10 Criminal investigation 375 11 Discrimination 370 12 Technology 327 13 Firearms 302 14 Evaluation 239 15 Women 150 16 Accountability/discipline 130 17 Human rights 115 18 Strategy 112 19 Riots 105 20 Domestic violence 85 21 Community policing 83 22 Discretion 42
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