Materials and Man's Needs Materials Science and Engineering (1974) / Chapter Skim
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Science and Engineering in Materials Activities
Science and Engineering in Materials Activities
Pages 22-53
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From page 22... ...
It links basic research to the solution of practical problems. At the same time, materials scientists and engineers rely heavily on empirical (experiencedbased)
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From page 23... ...
Thus the tunnel diode and the laser largely preceded and spurred the extensive basic work on the tunnel and laser effects in materials. Multidisciplinarity and Interdisciplinarity The bodies of knowledge required for progress in materials, and particularly for solving complex technological problems, often do not coincide with those of the traditional disciplines.
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25 O ·rl 1 ·r' V 0 C
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26 l :: FIGURE 7. Disciplinary Mix in Materials Science and Engineering Subjects within the shaded sector above are considered to be in the field of materials science and engineering.
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The academic structure -- promotion policies, funding mechanisms, peer-group recognition -- tends to be geared to the individual investigator, working primarily in a single discipline. The fostering of interdisciplinary academic programs in materials, in fact, was one of the goals of the 17 interdisciplinary laboratories established at universities in the early 1960's and funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (see page 373.
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From page 28... ...
As the work progresses toward application, more engineers may join the group while some of the basic scientists move on to other programs. This flexible, evolutionary process helps to combat the "not invented here" syndrome that can afflict programs in which research and development are done in sequential steps by different groups.
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From page 29... ...
Contributing also to weaknesses in materials are shortcomings in the generation and application of basic knowledge. National capability in materials science and engineering relies on the trained manpower and basic knowledge produced by the universities and on the application of basic knowledge by industry and other missionoriented institutions.
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Manpower Existing data on scientific and engineering manpower generally are not categorized along the multidisciplinary lines of materials science and engineering. We have used a list of specialties characterizing the field, therefore, to extract manpower data from prime sources.
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b Approximately 400,000 engineers are involved significantly in materials science and engineering. We estimate, conservatively, that they divide their efforts equally between materials and other engineering activities and thus are equivalent to 200,000 engineers working full time in materials.
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The current state of manpower data for materials science and engineering, and our knowledge of the relevant patterns of manpower flow, do not permit reasonable comparisons of the field with the traditional disciplines. However, as the role of materials science and engineering in meeting societal needs becomes more widely understood, it is quite possible that there will be an increasing demand for scientists and engineers in the materials field.
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From page 33... ...
and 1969 National Engineers Register (Engineering Manpower Commission)
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From page 34... ...
These include the Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, in composite materials; the Atomic Energy Commission's Oak Ridge National Laboratory in radiation damage and neutron diffraction; and the National Bureau of Standards in polymeric materials. The federal government also operates the National Standard Reference Data System, which is administered and coordinated by the National Bureau of Standards.
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E-' as a)
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From page 36... ...
Note: Other data suggest that the $260 million total shown above may be as high as $300 million, depending on definitions of terms. Some agencies, and COSMAT, consider research in solid-state physics to be materials research, for example, while others do not.
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From page 37... ...
Responsibility for the interdisciplinary laboratories program was assumed on July 1, 1972, by the Materials Research Division of the National Science Foundation; the laboratories were then renamed Materials Research Laboratories. In the spring of 1973 the Foundation announced plans for two new Materials Research Laboratories.
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From page 38... ...
They use the concept of central facilities, but are mostly without block funding. The COSMAT study found that, typically, these 28 centers ranked high in education and individual basic research, the traditional functions of the university.
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Some 60 programs of this kind are accredited in the country's 250 engineering schools. These and 30 unaccredited programs award annually somewhat more than 900 materials-designated baccalaureate degrees, or about 2 percent of the total engineering baccalaureates conferred annually.
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From page 40... ...
(In fiscal 1973 the Foundation estimates its materials research support at $35 million, more than triple the $10.7 million of 1971, but the major part of the increase arises from internal regrouping into the materials research category.) Relatively little identified support is available as yet from agencies like the Departments of Health, Education, and Welfare; Housing and Urban Development; and Transportation.
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From page 41... ...
, along with the population and standard of living. The resulting drain on resources has drawn sharp attention at various times, but especially in the past few years, as has the impact of waste or residual materials on the environment.
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From page 42... ...
Source: First annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior under the Mining and Minerals Policy Act of 1970, March 1972. Figures for agricultural fibers, forest products, and plastics compiled by COSMAT from various sources.
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From page 44... ...
Millions % of GNP Metal Mining $ 1,290 0.12 Mining and Quarrying of Nonmetallic Metals 1,654 0.16 Stone, Clay and Glass Products 8,710 0.83 Primary Metal Industries 18,923 1.80 Fabricated Metal Products 16,427 1.56 Machinery, except Electrical 26,066 2.48 Electrical Machinery 22,388 2.13 Transportation Equipment, except Motor Vehicles 14,582 1.39 Motor Vehicles and Motor Vehicle Equipment 22,824 2.17 Instruments 6,456 0.61 Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries 4,144 0.39 Chemicals and Allied Products 20,387 1.94 Rubber and Miscellaneous Plastic Products 7,371 0.70 Lumber and Wood Products, except Furniture 6,395 0.61 Furniture and Fixtures 3,984 0.38 Paper and Allied Products 9,357 0.89 Textile Mill Products 8,234 0.78 Apparel and Other Fabricated Textile Products 9,293 0.88 Leather and Leather Products 2,219 0~21 $210,704 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce.
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From page 45... ...
Besides the trend toward a service economy, the decline reflected substitution of aluminum and plastics for steel as well as weight-reducing design changes based on improvements in the properties of steel. Nonferrous metals decreased 23 percent, relatively, as the greater use of aluminum was more than offset by declines in other nonferrous metals.
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From page 46... ...
The metals-producing industries -- steel, nonferrous metals, fabricated metals -- were expected to remain essentially level in 1971-72 in constant dollars. This would have meant an 8 to 10 percent decrease in research and development actually performed because of rising costs.
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From page 47... ...
$ 122 $ 132 $ 149 8 13 165 155 234 -6 51 1,831 1,923 2,173 5 13 Steel Nonferrous Metals Machinery Electrical Machinery ~ Communications 4,324 Aerospace 5,173 Autos, Trucks ~ Parts ~ Other Transportation Equipment 1,415 131 134 1~727 4,410 4,498 5,353 4,914 4,914 5,061 1,475 1,504 1,609 2 o 2 19 7 Fabricated Metals ~ Ordnance 183 176 183 210 4 15 Professional ~ Scientific Instruments 694 756 824 972 9 18 Lumber ~ Furniture 24 31 36 38 16 6 Chemicals 1,809 1,827 1,882 2,145 3 14 Paper 119 133 133 166 0 25 Rubber Products 238 281 295 336 5 12 Stone, Clay ~ Class 188 169 169 198 0 17 Petroleum Products 608 492 522 606 6 16 Food ~ Beverages 198 208 225 263 8 17 Textile Mill Products 8, Apparel 64 60 66 81 10 23 Other Manufacturing 98 117 124 161 6 30 ALL MANUFACTURING 17,187 17,167 17,585 19,755 2 12 Nonmanufacturing 669 723 1,063 1,711 47 61 ALL INDUSTRIES 17,856 17,890 18,648 21,466 4 15 Source: National Science Foundation (19723.
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08 a Sales figures are based on company data classified by major product line. b 1972 estimated; 1975 planned.
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50 TABLE 12 Company-Funded Industrial Research and Development (Millions) Total R ~ D ,Basic Research 1975 1975 1971 1972 (Est.)
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By thus supplementing their experiencebased approach to materials research and development, these industries established technological leadership for themselves and for their countries. The resulting cumulative national payoff, though difficult to measure, is substantial.
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Competitive pressures and the cost of research and development are rising steadily. A not-uncommon view is that the penalties of failure in research and development and the liability of high engineering risk have grown too great, while the rewards of success and the achievement of advanced product performance are too easily appropriated by others.
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From page 53... ...
~3 returned good value and that the payoff is more assured than in many other fields. Progress in materials may not depend on public support to the same extent as does progress in astronomy, let us say, but for government, as for industry, materials science and engineering represents a sound investment.
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