Materials and Man's Needs Materials Science and Engineering -- Volume IV, Aspects of Materials Technology Abroad (1975) / Chapter Skim
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Results of Science and Technology Policies
Results of Science and Technology Policies
Pages 180-244
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From page 180... ...
Economic Comparisons Table 8.47 gives some data on per capita and real GNP. The per capita figures show: the strong progress made by France and Germany to their current position only slightly short of the U.S.; the rapid growth of Japan from a point low compared with the major industrial countries of W
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From page 181... ...
Government Printing Office # Estimated. Per Capita Real 58 133 56 128 26 161 52 118 100 127 ,, Per Capita Real 83 208 92 179 60 367 53 146 100 172 the President," transmitted to the ~ Stock No.
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From page 182... ...
8-182 Table 8.48 Economic Trends - Average Annual Rate of Growth (Percent) 1961-72 1971 1972 1973 Real GNP: United States 4.1 3.4 5.9 5.9 United Kingdom 2.7 2.3 3.8 5.8 France 5.7 5.7 5.4 6.7 West Germany 4.5 3.1 3.7 5.3 Japan 10.5 5.9 8.9 11.0 Industrial Production United States 4.7 0.6 6.7 9.0 United Kingdom 3.1 0.8 8.3 8.6 France 5.9 6.2 7.0 9.5 West Germany 5.2 1.7 3.4 7.6 Japan 12.3 3.3 6.6 17.4 Consumer Prices United States 3.0 4.5 2.9 6.2 United Kindgom 4.7 9.5 7.5 9.3 France 4.5 5.3 6.3 7.1 West Germany 3.2 5.3 5.8 7.0 Japan 5.8 6.2 4.8 11.7 Estimated.
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From page 183... ...
8-183 Table 8.48 (Continued) 1961-72 l9J1 1972 1973 Productivity United States 3.5 7.1 5.3 5.4 United Kingdom 4.2 5.0 8.3 3.0 France 5.7 4.8 7.2 8.0 West Germany 5.8 4.7 6.7 7.6 Japan 10.1 3.6 10.1 18.8 Hourly Compensation # United States 5.1 7.0 6.3 8.0 United Kingdom 8.3 12.4 12.3 13.6 France 9.9 12.4 12.5 13.0 West Germany 9.9 13.8 11.1 12.8 Japan 14.5 15.7 16.2 20.8 *
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had the lowest average capital investment Cto productivity. At the other end of the scale, Japan had the highest investment ratio and the highest rate of productivity gain." Implicit in these comparisons is that the productivity gain is important in itself.
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+Capital investment, excluding residential dwellings, as percent of total output.
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While one must not fall into the trap of segmenting foreign trade and other transactions in such a way as to judge each in terms of balance (the very basis of exchange between countries is, indeed, that each does better in some fields than in others; and so foreign trade is by nature "unbalanced, on an item-by-item basis) , nevertheless a number of recent studies have drawn attention to emerging trends Wee Tables 8~52, 8.53 and 8~54~.
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(millions) 1960 1965 1970 Aircraft and Parts $1,187 $1, 226 $2,771 Electronic Computers and Parts 44 219 1,044 Organic Chemicals 228 509 715 Plastic Materials and Resins 304 384 530 Scientific Instruments and Parts 109 245 407 Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Equipment 135 201 374 Medical and Pharmaceutical Products 191 198 333 Rubber Manufacture 108 119 -28 Textile Machinery 104 54 -37 Copper Metal -62 -132 -171 Phonographs and Sound Reproduction 15 -36 -301 Paper and Paper Products -501 -481 -464 Footwear -138 -151 -619 TV's and Radios -66 -163 -717 Iron and Steel 163 -605 -162 Petroleum Products -120 -464 -852 Textiles and Apparel -392 -151 -1, 542 Automotive Products 642 972 -2,039 *
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Returns from capital investment, payment for services including management and technology supply, and other forms of earning, are ways of paying for import balances. How one views such structural changes depends in part on the magnitude of emerging maladjustments and on the prospects for balance among these factors.
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automobiles, consumer electronics, and certain aircraft sectors. Thus, as one studi7 has concluded, within a given industry, such as steel or petroleum, the U.S.
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The U.S. maintains a much higher absolute level of R&D expenditures than any other country in the world but others, notably West Germany and Japan, are in a position to place a much higher relative emphasis on R&D for civilian market-oriented technology and economic development, and are doing so.
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, several American companies had competing blades on the market. This response was defensive and rapid.
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From page 206... ...
export performance has not been as strong as might have been expected: lower labor costs abroad have enabled other countries to capture much of the high-technology market, while paying more attention to process innovation has enabled other countries to gain strong positions in low-technology areas. This is, of course, a grossly oversimplified view.
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through licensing agreements with the two major American companies in the field -- Westinghouse and General Electric. However, this did not prevent European scientists and engineers from introducing a number of important innovations of their own, which the U.S.
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Furthermore, the wave of American success swept into Europe where much of the electronic components business soon became dominated by subsidiaries of U.S. companies.
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The original reluctance of the U.S. steel industry to adopt the technically more advanced steelmaking process -which has recently been reversed -- is an important factor behind the large increase in U.S.
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8-210 Table 8.55 Processes of Foreign Derivation used by the American Steel Industry and Related Industries* Type of Operation Derivation of Process Pelletizing and Heat Hardening Cold Hardening of Pellets Direct Reduction Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (L-D Process)
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8-211 Table 8.56 Some Innovations in Metallurgical Processes Description of Innovation Aluminum Fabrication 2.
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8-212 (b) Shell Molding (1941, Germany)
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Important technological contributions have been made also as a result of R&D conducted by consumers of nickel, particularly those in the steel industry and in the special-metals producing areas.
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8-214 U.S. relating to mining, smelting, and refining of primary nickel, new nickelcontaining products, and other new uses for nickel.
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8-215 Table 8.57 Patents Issued in the Nonferrous Metals Sector in Selected Countries United States Austria Belgium Japan 1960 85 65 91 19 1961 74 68 90 27 1962 88 55 122 22 1963 62 64 118 16 1964 85 57 n.a.
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Other Recent Progress Abroad in Metallurgical Process Technology (a) Steel The Japanese have obtained the best steelmaking technology from all over the world, coupled this with their own R&D, and as a result have some of the finest steel-production facilities in the world.
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8-217 CO Sot to o ¢ sat o u U)
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8-218 several attempts in this country to use plasmas for steelmelting. These efforts seem to have failed, but specific information is difficult to obtain.
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Westinghouse had one built in West Germany for installation in 1972, to have an 8000-ton nominal and 16000-ton maximum capacity.
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Germany is noted for its glass industry, particularly the development of various high-quality and specialty glasses for Optical instruments and scientific uses. Japan also has traditional skills in ceramics and has recently gained a corresponding reputation in the glass sector, especially for electronic components such as television and camera tubes, optics and glass-fiber waveguides.
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The basic idea of floating molten glass over molten tin was patented in the Ue S at the beginning of the century but remained unexploited.
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8-222 manufactures, synthetic fibers, and organic chemicals. Germany, in particular, has made a strong contribution in this field, especially the HoechstWatcher process for the palladium-catalyzed oxidation of ethylene to acetaldehyde, the Siemens process for producing high-purity silicon from trichlorosilane, and a process for making vinyl acetate.
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A trend similar to that in Germany took place in France, where most of the innovations during the last ten years resulted from research in the domestic-plastics industry. Here' as in Germany, an essential part of the innovation was contributed by equipment manufacturers.
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One of the largest American companies then took up the basic idea, carried on the development and discovered in its own laboratories a new and valuable type of "Cellophone." (c) Crease-Resisting Fabrics (~1926, England)
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Materials Science and Engineering in Electronics Introduction - U.S. Leadership The field of electronics and electronic equipment depends on a hardware base of electronic components.
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The integrated circuit represents the combination of the very highest skills and knowledge of physicists, metallurgists, chemists, electrical and mechanical engineers. Indeed, it often seems that the term "solid-state electronics" has become almost synonymous with "solidstate physics," with electronic materials, and even with the title "materials science and engineering" itself.
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The increasing need for close cooperation between the component manufacturer and the equipment manufacturers is best understood in the light of the evolution of the electronics industry as a whole. The accompanying chart (Figure 8.4)
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~ .- - - - .......... '.~ Souroc Technological Foundations and Future Directions of Large Scolo Integrated Electronics by Richard L
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In the case of the integrated circuit industry, the picture which emerges is somewhat different from that of the transistor industry, in that the main ideas and basic inventions were concomitant with a specific military need for a fundamental revolution in electronics technology. In the development phase, governmental support was largely directed towards the generation of various pieces of equipment using integrated circuits (IC's)
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From page 237... ...
However, if governments can create a reasonably wide market at the stage when these products are still very expensive, the subsequent drop in prices can be more rapid and the penetration of the new products into the economy greatly accelerated. To conclude, the hypothesis that the semiconductor and integrated circuit industries owed their development to federal support can be accepted with the two following major reservations: first, most of the basic discoveries and ideas came from the civilian sector using private funds; secondly, although the impact of governmental support was largely concentrated on the development stage, the real significance of these two revolutions, namely their overall influence on the economy through the increasing pervasiveness of electronics, was largely the result of company strategies and private management.
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From page 238... ...
Had the broader aim of public service been kept in mind rather than the narrow allegiance to one specific means of transportation, it is probable that these firms would have been more receptive to innovation and to an improvement of their services; and would not have been so dramatically superseded by more service-minded aircraft transportation companies. In the electronic components industry, the same type of mistake was made in some companies manufacturing vacuum tubes.
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From page 239... ...
Bell Telephone, and more recently to a similar extent, LAM, belong in class on their own -- fully integrated companies whose activities range all the way from original R&D through component and equipment manufacturers to the provision of services directly to the customer. They are superbly equipped to perform the whole innovative process efficiently and effectively.
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From page 240... ...
In Europe most of the established electronics companies, Siemens, Phillips, AEI, would compare with those in the second group and, likewise, they have not seemed able to adapt as readily to the new solid-state technology, particularly because of the reluctance of banks to put up risk capital and because of traditionally restrictive attitudes towards patents and cross-licensing. Similarly, these factors served to thwart the entry of newcomers that would compare with the third and fourth categories.
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Dominance in Electronics21 American technology is now vital for the future success of the European electronics industry. Texas Instruments is the world's largest manufacturer of integrated circuits; U.S.
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The practical difficulties of having several material preparation groups working at once, each as a part of a different device team, are solved by physically co-locating the groups so that common use is made of clean rooms, fume cupboards, measurement gear, etc. A comprehensive military R&D program in advanced electronic devices thus inevitably leads to the appearance of numerous groups in diverse companies and governmental establishments, all trying to prepare compounds.
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From page 243... ...
The material development has involved long-lif e oxide cathodes, purification of electrode materials and process development for the electron tubes, and semiconductor-materials refinement for the transistors. When the required performance appeared within range, industrial firms were sponsored to complete product development and ultimately to undertake production.
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From page 244... ...
Two achievements in electronic materials should be mentioned, however; electroluminescent pen junctions in sit icon carbide crystals, and the worlds first double-heterojunction containment injection laser operating continuously at room temperature. Both achievements represent real skill with materials, but it is important to observe that these achievements were stimulated and paced by applied physicists and engineers who had definite device objectives.
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