Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2005) / Chapter Skim
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3. Relationship of Macronutrients and Physical Activity to Chronic Disease
3. Relationship of Macronutrients and Physical Activity to Chronic Disease
Pages 53-83
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and the chapter on physical activity (Chapter 12)
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Increased intakes of energy, total fat, n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, cholesterol, sugars, protein, and some amino acids have been thought to increase the risk of various cancers, whereas intakes of n-3 fatty acids, dietary fiber, and physical activity are thought to be protective. The major findings and potential mechanisms for these relationships are discussed below.
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. However, there is also some epidemiological evidence for a positive association between these fatty acids and breast cancer risk in women with no history of benign breast disease (Velie et al., 2000)
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, suggesting that certain cereal foods are protective or that only certain types and stages of breast cancer respond to these interventions. Physical Activity Regular exercise, as recommended in this report, has been shown to be negatively correlated with the risk of colon cancer (Colbert et al., 2001; White et al., 1996)
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. HEART DISEASE The known risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD)
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, which may be due to genetic factors. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol concentrations (Gardner and Kraemer, 1995)
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. n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA]
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. Viscous fibers are thought to lower serum cholesterol concentrations by interfering with absorption and recirculation of bile acids and cholesterol in the intestine and thus decreasing the concentration of circulating cholesterol.
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Vigorous physical activity increases plasma HDL cholesterol, HDL2, and apolipoprotein A-I and decreases plasma triacylglycerol, very low density lipoprotein, and atherogenic small, dense LDL concentrations (Williams et al., 1986, 1990, 1992; Wood et al., 1988)
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on risk indicators of coronary heart disease, they are often used in patients with lipid disorders. There has been concern about the use of these fatty acids for lipid disorders because many of these patients also have type 2 diabetes.
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. Short- and long-term effects of physical activity on glucose tolerance, insulin action, and muscle glucose uptake show that contracting muscle has an "insulin-like" effect on promoting glucose uptake and metabolism (Bergman et al., 1999; Horton, 1991; Richter et al., 1981)
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Physical activity can reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes (Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group, 2002; Tuomilehto et al., 2001) , and can also reduce total and abdominal obesity, both of which are risk factors for type 2 diabetes (Vessby, 2000)
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Physical Activity Energy expenditure by physical activity (see Chapters 5 and 12) varies considerably between individuals, affecting the energy balance and the body composition by which energy balance and weight maintenance are achieved (Ballor and Keesey, 1991; Williamson et al., 1993)
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. Physical activity increases bone mass in children and adolescents and maintains bone mass in adults (French et al., 2000; Khan et al., 2000)
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1999. Trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease.
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2000. Low-density lipoprotein particle size, triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol as risk factors for coronary heart disease in older Japanese-American men.
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1995. Fish, n-3 fatty acids and human colorectal and breast cancer mortality.
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1992. Epidemiological evidence of relationships between dietary poly unsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial.
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1996. No effect of short-term dietary supplementation of saturated and poly- and monounsaturated fatty acids on insulin secretion and sensitivity in healthy men.
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1977. High density lipoprotein as a protective factor against coronary heart disease.
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1997. Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women.
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2000. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production.
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1995. The protective effect of a small amount of fish on coronary heart disease mortality in an elderly population.
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1991. Physical activity and incidence of non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women.
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1992. Effect of dietary fatty acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins.
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1997. Intake of fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men.
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1997. Dietary fatty acids and cancer.
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1992. Cholesterol as a risk factor for coronary heart disease in elderly men.
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1997b. Dietary fat intake and risk of prostate cancer: A prospective study of 25,708 Norwegian men.
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1993. Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women.
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1995. Plasma cholesterol-predictive equations demonstrate that stearic acid is neutral and monounsaturated fatty acids are hypocholesterolemic.
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