Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2005) / Chapter Skim
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11. Macronutrients and Healthful Diets
11. Macronutrients and Healthful Diets
Pages 769-879
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From page 769... ...
Because the evidence is less clear on whether low or high fat intakes during childhood can lead to increased risk of chronic diseases later in life, the estimated AMDRs for fat for children are primarily based on a transition from the high fat intakes that occur during infancy to the lower adult AMDR. The AMDR for fat is 30 to 40 percent of energy for children 1 to 3 years of age and 25 to 35 percent of energy for children 4 to 18 years of age.
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From page 770... ...
high intakes of linoleic acid create a pro-oxidant state that may predispose to several chronic diseases, such as CHD and cancer. Therefore, an AMDR of 5 to 10 percent of energy is estimated for n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid)
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From page 771... ...
While some nutrients are present in both animal- and plant-derived foods, others are only present or are more abundant in either animal or plant foods. For example, animal-derived foods contain significant amounts of protein, saturated fatty acids, long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and the micronutrients iron, zinc, and vitamin B12, while plant-derived foods provide greater amounts of carbohydrate, Dietary Fiber, linoleic and -linolenic acids, and micronutrients such as vitamin C and the B vitamins.
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From page 772... ...
Low Fat, High Carbohydrate Diets of Adults The chronic diseases of greatest concern with respect to relative intakes of macronutrients are CHD, diabetes, and cancer. In this section, the relationship between total fat and total carbohydrate intakes are considered.
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From page 773... ...
. Moreover, some populations, such as those in Asia, have habitual very low fat intakes (about 10 percent of total energy)
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From page 774... ...
774 intake intake intake Obese intake intake intake with energy with energy with energy hypocaloric fat fat fat diets diet, fat Moderately associated decreased associated decreased associated decreased Comments Decreased Decreased Decreased Low Isocaloric or body in Change significant changes weight Normal-Weight Weight (kg) 5.1 2.8 1.3 0.94 +0.06 2.54 1.26 No +0.3 +1.1 in 70% Change Fat energy)
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From page 775... ...
775 intake intake intake intake continued intake with energy hypocaloric intake intake intake with energy with energy with energy fat fat fat fat diet, fat associated decreased associated decreased associated decreased associated decreased Decreased Low Decreased Decreased Decreased mo 12 0.93 +0.62 mo 0 0.7 1.1 0.3 0.9 1.8 +0.8 6 1.16 +0.07 1.0 3.0 0.4 +1.1 26% 36% y 28% 26% 28% 37% 23 34 21% 35% y 22% 37% 2 23% 1 to to y 46 20% 40% 36 36 36 36 36 37 37 0 39 39 1 22 women diet diet diet diet diet parallel and 2-y crossover crossover parallel women libitum men women libitum women parallel libitum women parallel libitum women libitum 11 14-d Ad 22 4-wk Controlled 398 6-mo Ad 57 1-y Ad 206 1-y Ad 276 1-and Ad year) (1 al., al., al., al., et et et al., et studies al., et et 1997 2000 2000 1988 1990 1991 Raben Gerhard Saris Lee-Han Boyd Sheppard Long-term
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From page 776... ...
776 intake intake intake intake intake intake with energy with energy with energy fat fat fat associated decreased associated decreased associated decreased Comments Decreased Decreased Decreased mo Men 2.8 +0.5 12 5.9 Change mo Weight (kg) 5.0 +1.0 3.4 0.8 2.0 1.0 2.9 2.9 Women 2.7 +0.8 4 1.3 12% Fat % Men 22% 30% energy)
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From page 777... ...
Risk of CHD Low fat, high carbohydrate diets, compared to higher fat intakes, can induce a lipoprotein pattern called the atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype (Krauss, 2001) or atherogenic dyslipidemia (National Cholesterol Education Program, 2001)
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From page 778... ...
778 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES TABLE 11-2 Fat and Carbohydrate Intake and Blood Lipid Concentrations in Healthy Individuals Total Fat/ Carbohydrate Intake Reference Study Designa (% of energy) Coulston et al., 11 men and women 1983 10-d crossover 21 P/S = 1.21.3 41 Bowman et al., 19 men 29/60 1988 10-wk parallel 33/58 P/S = 0.4 45/42 46/42 Borkman et al., 8 men and women 20/55 P/S = 0.46 1991 3-wk crossover 50/31 P/S = 0.22 Kasim et al., 72 women 18 1993 1-y parallel 34 P/S = 0.680.75 Leclerc et al., 7 men and women 11/64 1993 7-d crossover 30/45 40/45 Krauss and 105 men 24/60 Dreon, 1995 6-wk crossover 46/39 P/S = 0.690.74 O'Hanesian 10 men and women 17/63 P/S = 0.25 et al., 1996 10-d crossover 28/57 P/S = 2.2 42/39 P/S = 1.7 Jeppesen et al., 10 postmenopausal 25/60 1997 women 45/40 3-wk crossover P/S = 1.0 Kasim-Karakas 14 postmenopausal 14 P/S = 1.2 et al., 1997 women 23 P/S = 1.0 4-mo intervention 31 P/S = 0.9 Yost et al., 25 men and women 25/55 1998 15-d crossover 50/30 P/S = 0.3 Straznicky 14 men 25/54 P/S = 1.3 et al., 1999 2-wk crossover 47/36 P/S = 0.1 Kasim-Karakas 54 postmenopausal 12/71 et al., 2000 women 14/69 4- to 12-mo 34/50 crossover P/S = 0.64
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From page 779... ...
MACRONUTRIENTS AND HEALTHFUL DIETS 779 Postintervention Blood Lipid Concentration (mmol/L) b Triacylglycerol HDL-C LDL-C 1.51c 0.98c 1.02d 1.16d 0.91c 1.42c 2.35c 1.11c 1.22c 2.17c 0.84c 1.53c 2.59c 1.01c 1.50c 2.40c 0.82c (+49%)
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From page 780... ...
b HDL-C = high density lipoprotein cholesterol, LDL-C = low density lipoprotein cholesterol. FIGURE 11-1 Relationship between percent of total fat intake and change in triacylglycerol (TAG)
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From page 781... ...
Cholesterol mg/dL HDL Serum Concentration Proportion of Energy Derived from Carbohydrates (%) FIGURE 11-2 Relationship between proportion of energy from carbohydrates and serum high density lipoprotein (HDL)
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From page 782... ...
The reduction in HDL cholesterol concentration with low fat intake results in a rise in the total:HDL cholesterol concentration ratio (Figure 11-3)
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From page 783... ...
783 with association increased carbohydrate intake Triacylglycerol Concentration No Increased 2.11 2.26 2.23 2.25 2.13 Concentrations Lipid to to intake intake increased intake Lipoprotein HDL Blood carbohydrate with related related association and Cholesterol and Density carbohydrate carbohydrate between intake concentration carbohydrate High (HDL) Concentration Inversely Inversely Negative Decreased 1.13 1.11 1.09 1.07 1.05 Intake (LDL)
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From page 784... ...
These abnormalities are more likely to occur with low fat, high carbohydrate diets. They potentially could be related to the development of both type 2 diabetes and CHD.
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From page 785... ...
For usual diets that are low in total fat, the intake of essential fatty acids, such as n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, will be low (Appendix K)
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From page 786... ...
786 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES TABLE 11-4 Intervention Studies on Carbohydrate Intake and Biochemical Indicators of Diabetes Reference Study Design Dunnigan et al., 9 men and women 1970 4-wk crossover 31% sucrose Sucrose-free Rath et al., 6 men 1974 2- to 5-wk crossover 17% sucrose 52% sucrose Reiser et al., 19 men and women 1979 6-wk crossover 30% starch 30% sucrose Beck-Nielsen 7-d intervention et al., 1980 Normal diet + 250 g glucose Normal diet + 250 g fructose Chen et al., 8 men 1988 3- to 5-d crossover 85% carbohydrate 41% carbohydrate 30% carbohydrate Lundgren et al., 1,462 women, 1989 Prospective cohort, 12-y follow-up Fukagawa et al., 6 men 1990 21- to 28-d intervention 40% carbohydrate 69% carbohydrate a,b,cWithin each study, the indicators of diabetes that are significantly different between treatment groups have a different superscript.
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From page 787... ...
9.8a 92.5a 11.9b 94.5a No significant difference in insulin concentrations The high fructose diet was accompanied by a significant reduction in insulin binding and insulin sensitivity Glucose disappearance Insulin sensitivity index (%/min) 5.6a 2.2a 6.1b 2.3b 3.9a,c 1.6a,c 5.6a 2.2a 6.1b 2.3b 3.9a,c 1.6a,c Carbohydrate intake of women who developed diabetes (212 g/d)
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From page 788... ...
High fiber diets have the potential for reduced energy density, reduced energy intake, and poor growth. However, poor growth is unlikely in the United States where most children consume adequate energy and fiber intake is relatively low (Williams and Bollella, 1995)
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From page 789... ...
reviewed the literature on the relation of sugars intake to micronutrient adequacy and concluded that, provided consumption of sugars is not excessive (defined as less than 20 percent of total energy intake) , no health risks are likely to ensue due to micronutrient inadequacies.
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From page 790... ...
National Diet and Nutrition Survey of Children Bowman, 1999 Continuing Survey of Two 24-h recalls Food Intakes by Individuals (19941996) Forshee and Storey, Continuing Survey of 2001 Food Intakes by Individuals (19941996)
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From page 791... ...
MACRONUTRIENTS AND HEALTHFUL DIETS 791 Added Sugars Intake (% of energy) Change in Micronutrient Intake 16 Decrease in nicotinic acid for girls 21 27 10 Decrease in vitamin D, protein 20 Percentile of intake 26th75th > 75th Decrease in calcium Men: 1.06.2, 6.38.9, Linear reduction in vitamin E, vitamin C, and 9.013.0, 13.115.7, vitamin A for both men and women 15.847.9 Women: 0.84.8, 4.96.3, 6.48.1, 8.211.6, 11.750.2 < 12 1216 Decrease in zinc, calcium, riboflavin 1620 2025 > 25 Decrease in niacin, thiamin; large decrease in calcium, zinc, riboflavin < 10 1018 Decrease in calcium > 18 Decrease in vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin C, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper; large decrease in calcium Negative correlation between added sugar intake and intake of vitamin A, calcium, and folate
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From page 792... ...
Cross-country epidemiological data of dietary fat intake and obesity have yielded mixed results (Bray and Popkin, 1998;
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From page 793... ...
observed no association between fat intake and weight gain prospectively, but did find a positive association between previous weight
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From page 794... ...
. Another line of evidence often cited to indicate that dietary fat is not an important contributor to obesity is that although there has been a reduction in the percent of energy from fat consumed in the United States, there has been an increase in energy intake and a marked gain in average weight (Willett, 1998)
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From page 795... ...
In the studies that administered preloads that had constant volume but different energy content (energy density was altered by changing dietary fat content) , there was no consistent difference in subsequent satiety or hunger between the various test meals (Durrant and Royston, 1979; Green et al., 1994; Hill et al., 1987; Himaya et al., 1997; Hulshof et al., 1993; Louis-Sylvestre et al., 1994; Porrini et al., 1995; Rolls et al., 1994)
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From page 796... ...
An alternative way to study the effects of energy density on energy intake in short-term studies has been to compare energy intake between diets of similar energy density that differ in dietary fat content. Using this approach, when fat content was covertly varied between 20 and 60 percent of energy, there was no significant difference in energy intake between groups (Saltzman et al., 1997; Stubbs et al., 1996; van Stratum et al., 1978)
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From page 797... ...
In addition, short- and long-term intervention studies provide evidence that reduced fat intake is accompanied by reduced energy intake and therefore moderate weight reduction or prevention of weight gain. For these reasons, it may be concluded that higher fat intakes are accompanied with increased energy intake and therefore increased risk for weight gain in populations that are already disposed to overweight and obesity, such as that of North America.
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From page 798... ...
conducted a meta-analysis on 37 intervention studies that evaluated the effects of the National Cholesterol Education Program's Step I and Step II dietary interventions on various cardiovascular disease risk factors. Reductions in plasma total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol concentrations were significantly correlated with reductions in percentages of total dietary fat, but these also included a decrease in saturated fatty acids.
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From page 799... ...
For example, if all of the dietary fats consumed were low in saturated fatty acids (e.g., 20 percent of fat energy) , a total fat intake of 35 percent of total energy would yield a saturated fatty acid intake of 7 percent of total energy.
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From page 800... ...
800 and and sugar Coronary intake intake consumed of consumed between sugar carbohydrate sugar CHD CHD Risk total carbohydrates from and association between less between death CHD as developed died and CHD CHD Intake who energy of who of significant association association intake less risk significantly risk Comments No Those No Those No Sugar and energy) energy)
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From page 801... ...
801 and ferent risk dif a CHD sugar of have between risk intake extrinsic carbohydrate, groups or between association total fructose and or treatment intrinsic CHD association significant either intake of sucrose, between No No different Women 3.31 3.153.31 8.55 8.639.10 Fructose 1.00 0.91 0.96 1.11 1.07 CHD energy) significantly of of are (% risk Sucrose 1.00 1.03 1.16 1.02 1.22 Men 2.06 1.892.19 11.2 10.511.4 that intake Relative Carbo- hydrate 1.00 1.02 1.09 1.03 1.23 intakes sugar sugar sugar intake Mean Intrinsic Control CHD Added Control CHD Quintile of 1 2 3 4 5 carbohydrate or women survey sugar and cohort, mean men women follow-up the 10-y 11,626 Cross-sectional 75,521 Prospective study, each and al., et Smith Woodward, 1994 2000 Within Bolton- Liu a,b superscript.
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From page 802... ...
. An important question is whether humans are similarly susceptible to this phenomenon independent of the effects of total fat intake on body fat content.
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From page 803... ...
These analyses are difficult to interpret because of the multiplicity of potential confounding variables. Nevertheless, several studies have reported an association between higher fat intakes and insulin resistance as indicated by high fasting insulin concentration, impaired glucose tolerance, or impaired insulin sensitivity (Lovejoy and DiGirolamo, 1992; Marshall et al., 1991; Mayer et al., 1993)
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From page 804... ...
804 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES TABLE 11-8 Interventional Studies on the Effect of Dietary Fat on the Metabolic Parameters for Glucose and Insulin in Healthy Individuals Percent Fasting Fasting Reference Study Design of Fat Glucose Insulin Coulston et al., 11 men and women 4121 NSCa NSC 1983 10-d crossover Chen et al., 8 young men 0 1988 3- to 5-d crossover 42 ND ND 55 ND ND 10 elderly men 037 ND ND 3- to 5-d crossover Abbott et al., 9 men and women 4221 NSC NSC 1989 5-wk crossover Fukagawa et al., 6 young men 4214 Decreasedb Decreasedb 1990 21- to 28-d intervention 6 elderly men and 3815 Decreasedb Decreasedb women 21- to 28-d intervention Borkman et al., 8 men and women 2050 NSC NSC 1991 3-wk crossover Howard et al., 1991 7 men and women 4221 NSC NSC 5- to 7-wk crossover 9 men and women 4221 NSC NSC 3- to 5-wk longitudinal 12 Caucasians and 1550 Increasedd NSC 12 Pima Indians 2-wk crossover
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From page 805... ...
MACRONUTRIENTS AND HEALTHFUL DIETS 805 Glucose Area Under Area Under Disposal/ the Curve the Curve Insulin Glucose Disappearance for Glucose for Insulin Sensitivity Effectiveness Rate NSC Decreasedb NDc ND ND ND ND Decreasedb NSC ND ND ND Increasedb NSC ND ND ND Decreasedb NSC ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Increasedb ND ND ND ND NSC ND ND ND ND NSC NSC ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Increasede Increasede NSC Decreasedd ND continued
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From page 806... ...
. However, favorable effects of substituting a monounsaturated fat diet for a saturated fat diet on insulin sensitivity were seen at a total fat intake of up to 37 percent of energy (Vessby et al., 2001)
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From page 807... ...
Any suggestive links between fat intake and either insulin secretion or sensitivity may be mediated through confounding factors, such as body-fat content, making it difficult to detect any independent contribution of total fat intake to insulin sensitivity. Conclusions.
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From page 808... ...
. With higher fat intakes, it is difficult to create practical high fat menus that do not contain unacceptably high amounts of saturated fatty acids (National Cholesterol Education Program, 2001)
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From page 809... ...
Moreover, high fat diets are usually accompanied by increased intakes of saturated fatty acids, which can raise plasma LDL cholesterol concentrations and further increase risk for CHD. Based on the apparent risk for CHD that may occur on low fat diets, and the risk for increased energy intake and therefore obesity with the consumption of high fat diets, the AMDR for fat and carbohydrate is estimated to be 20 to 35 and 45 to 65 percent of energy, respectively, for all adults.
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From page 810... ...
. Growth Most studies have reported no effect of the level of dietary fat on growth when energy intake is adequate (Boulton and Magarey, 1995; Fomon et al., 1976; Lagström et al., 1999; Lapinleimu et al., 1995; Niinikoski et al., 1997a, 1997b; Obarzanek et al., 1997; Shea et al., 1993)
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From page 811... ...
reported that 1-year-old children who consistently consumed low fat diets (less than 28 percent) grew as well as children with higher fat intakes.
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From page 812... ...
reported reduced intakes of certain micronutrients by 10-year-old children who consumed less than 30 percent of energy as fat; however, this level of fat intake was associated with marked increased intakes of candy. It has been suggested that children who consume a low fat diet can meet their micronutrient recommendation by appropriate selection of certain low fat foods (Peterson and SigmanGrant, 1997)
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From page 813... ...
From 1989 to 1995, energy intakes increased for U.S. children aged 2 to 17 years primarily due to increased carbohydrate consumption.
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From page 814... ...
The evidence for a role of dietary fat intakes in promoting higher energy intakes and thus promoting obesity in young children is conflicting. A positive trend in energy intake was associated with an increased percent of energy from fat for children up to 8 years of age (Boulton and Magarey, 1995)
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From page 815... ...
. However, no significant association between dietary fat and LDL cholesterol concentration was observed for boys and girls (aged 8 to 10 years)
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From page 816... ...
Furthermore, with increasing levels of fat intake, the intake of saturated fat relative to linoleic acid intake markedly increases. AMDRs for Children The evidence suggests that children have a higher fat oxidation rate compared to adults, and that reduced intake of certain micronutrients can occur with the consumption of low fat diets, whereas there is potential risk of obesity with high fat intakes.
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From page 817... ...
Compared to baseline values, serum total cholesterol concentrations changed from 17 to +3 percent on the low fat, high carbohydrate diet, whereas it changed from 20 to 3 percent on the high monounsaturated fatty acid diet. The range of decrease in plasma low density lipoprotein (LDL)
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From page 818... ...
Furthermore, a meta-analysis of feeding studies estimated that the regression coefficients for the effects of monounsaturated fatty acids on LDL and HDL cholesterol concentrations were 0.008 and +0.006, respectively, suggesting a slight positive benefit (Clarke et al., 1997)
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From page 819... ...
A few epidemiological studies have reported an inverse relationship between monounsaturated fatty acid intake and risk of breast cancer (Willett et al., 1992; Wolk et al., 1998) , while a number of studies reported no association (Holmes et al., 1999; Hunter et al., 1996; Jones et al., 1987; Kushi et al., 1992; van den Brandt et al., 1993; van't Veer et al., 1990)
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From page 820... ...
are not required to supply essential nutrients, very low intakes of monounsaturated fatty acids would require increased intakes of other types of fatty acids to achieve recommended fat intakes. Consequently, intakes of saturated and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids would probably exceed a desirable level of intake (see "n-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids" and Chapter 8)
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From page 821... ...
. Risk of Nutrient Inadequacy Dietary n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids have been reported to contribute approximately 5 to 7 percent of total energy intake of adults (Allison et al., 1999; Fischer et al., 1985)
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From page 822... ...
. Linoleic acid, the predominant n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid, is essential in the diet, and therefore an Adequate Intake (AI)
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From page 823... ...
High n-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Diets Risk of LDL Oxidation When exposed to oxidant stress, n-6 fatty acids are vulnerable to attack by free radicals and oxidation into lipid peroxides (Halliwell and Chirico, 1993)
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From page 824... ...
Compared with monounsaturated fatty acids, in vitro susceptibility of LDLs to undergo oxidative modification has been shown to increase with increased linoleic acid content in LDLs as a result of increased intakes of linoleic acid (Abbey et al., 1993; Berry et al., 1991; Bonanome et al., 1992; Louheranta et al., 1996; Reaven et al., 1991, 1993, 1994)
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From page 825... ...
concluded that it was unlikely that high intakes of linoleic acid substantially raise the risk of breast, colorectal, or prostate cancer. Risk of Nutrient Excess High intakes of linoleic acid can inhibit the formation of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from -linolenic acid, which are precursors to the important eicosanoids (see Chapter 8)
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From page 826... ...
Many of the epidemiological studies used fish or fish oil intake as a surrogate for n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake. The amounts of n-3 fatty acids vary greatly in fish, however, and unless the amounts of n-3 fatty acids are known, any conclusions are open to question.
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From page 827... ...
. In the Nurses' Health Study, higher consumption of fish and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids were associated with a reduced risk of total stroke and thrombotic infarction
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From page 828... ...
. The consumption of 3.65 to 6 g/d of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids inhibits platelet aggregation, which in turn prevents the risk of CHD (Mori et al., 1997; Tremoli et al., 1995)
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From page 829... ...
n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids have also been reported to reduce blood pressure in hypertensive individuals. A meta-analysis of 31 placebocontrolled trials estimated a mean reduction in systolic and diastolic blood pressure of 3.0 and 1.5 mm Hg, respectively (Morris et al., 1993)
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From page 830... ...
830 c d c c d c d c d c c Triacylglycerol 1.71 1.23 1.62 1.85 1.24 1.62 1.17 1.95 1.49 1.32 1.34 2.08 1.57 1.80 1.71 b Lipid Blood c c c c c c c c c (mmol/L) HDL-C 1.28 1.15 1.26 1.16 1.28 1.32 1.31 1.36 1.36 1.08 1.16 1.01 0.97 Concentrations c c d c c c c Postintervention Concentration LDL-C 4.44 4.55 4.62 4.65 4.71 4.43 4.47 5.03 5.11 4.84 5.03 Lipid Blood and EPA/DHA EPA/DHA EPA/DHA n-3)
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From page 831... ...
831 c d d d c d d c c d uperscript.s 1.42 1.16 0.97 0.89 1.33 1.02 1.08 0.93 0.92 0.68 different a c d c c c c have 1.40 1.42 1.34 1.18 1.19 1.22 groups c c c c c c c c d d 2.60 2.56 2.42 2.51 4.10 4.13 3.98 2.60 2.29 2.30 treatment between diet) cholesterol.
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From page 832... ...
Risk of Diabetes Epidemiological Evidence. While several studies have reported a negative relationship between polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and risk of diabetes (Colditz et al., 1992; Salmerón et al., 2001; Trevisan et al., 1990)
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From page 833... ...
Whether a change of dietary fat composition will alter insulin sensitivity in humans remains an open question. Studies in humans have demonstrated a relationship between increased insulin sensitivity and the proportion of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in skeletal muscle phospholipids (Borkman et al., 1993; Clore et al., 1998)
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From page 834... ...
Fatty fishes and fish oils provide a mixture of biologically active EPA and DHA. n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (-linolenic acid)
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From page 835... ...
. SATURATED FATTY ACIDS, TRANS FATTY ACIDS, AND CHOLESTEROL Low Saturated Fatty Acid, Trans Fatty Acid, and Cholesterol Diets There are no known risks of chronic disease from consuming low intakes of saturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, or cholesterol.
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From page 836... ...
To minimize saturated fatty acid intake requires decreased intake of animal fats (e.g., meat fat and butter fat) and certain oils, such as coconut and palm kernel oil.
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From page 837... ...
conducted a study in female rats chemically induced for mammary tumors and fed a diet containing either 2 percent or 12 percent linoleic acid. The rats were also supplemented with 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, or 2 percent CLA.
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From page 838... ...
CLA may compete with linoleic acid in its conversion to arachidonic acid, thereby reducing the biosynthesis of eicosanoids (Banni et al., 1999) , which have been associated with the proliferation of cultured breast cancer cells (Karmali, 1986; Noguchi et al., 1995)
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From page 839... ...
Impaired Growth Low protein intake during pregnancy is correlated with a higher incidence of low birth weight (King, 2000)
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From page 840... ...
. When the ratio of casein:soybean protein in the diet was decreased, there was a reduction in total and non-high density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations (Fernandez et al., 1999; Teixeira et al., 2000)
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From page 841... ...
. It has recently been concluded that there may be no need to restrain dietary protein intake.
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From page 842... ...
or humans. In humans, analysis of data from the Nurses' Health Study showed an inverse relationship between protein intake and risk of cardiovascular disease (Hu et al., 1999)
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From page 843... ...
. Furthermore, migration to an area with typically higher protein intakes is associated with increased risk of breast cancer (Buell, 1973; Buell and Dunn, 1965)
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From page 844... ...
. Overall, despite the demonstration of a positive influence of dietary fat and total energy, as well as meat (especially red meat)
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From page 845... ...
Eur J Clin Nutr 50:765771. Albert CM, Hennekens CH, O'Donnell CJ, Ajani UA, Carey VJ, Willett WC, Ruskin JN, Manson JE.
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From page 846... ...
1983. Effects of saturated, monounsaturated, and -6 polyunsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipids, lipoproteins, and apoproteins in humans.
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From page 847... ...
1992. Effect of dietary monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids on the susceptibility of plasma low density lipoproteins to oxidative modification.
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From page 848... ...
1990. Quan titative changes in dietary fat intake and serum cholesterol in women: Results from a randomized, controlled trial.
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From page 849... ...
1994. Daily dietary fat and total food-energy intakes -- Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Phase 1, 198891.
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From page 850... ...
1997. n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, heart rate variability and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with previous myocardial infarcts.
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From page 851... ...
Am J Clin Nutr 71:213223. de Deckere EAM, van Amelsvoort JMM, McNeill GP, Jones P
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From page 852... ...
1994a. Long-term metabolic effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with coronary artery dis ease.
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From page 853... ...
1996. No effect of short-term dietary supplementation of saturated and poly- and monounsaturated fatty acids on insulin secretion and sensitivity in healthy men.
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From page 854... ...
Am J Clin Nutr 72:5663. Giannini S, Nobile M, Sartori L, Dalle Carbonare L, Ciuffreda M, Corro P, D'Angelo A, Calo L, Crepaldi G
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From page 855... ...
1986. Comparison of monounsaturated fatty acids and carbohydrates for lowering plasma cholesterol.
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From page 856... ...
1995. Dietary fat intake and weight gain in women genetically predisposed for obesity.
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From page 857... ...
1995. Polyunsaturated fatty acids result in greater cholesterol lowering and less triacylglycerol elevation than do monounsaturated fatty acids in a doseresponse comparison in a multiracial study group.
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From page 858... ...
2000. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production.
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From page 859... ...
1996. Antiarrhythmic effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids: Recent studies.
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From page 860... ...
2000. Beneficial effects of a diet high in monounsaturated fatty acids on risk factors for cardio vascular disease.
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From page 861... ...
1992. Dietary fat and postmenopausal breast cancer.
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From page 862... ...
1995. Olive oil, other dietary fats, and the risk of breast cancer (Italy)
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From page 863... ...
1999. Dietary fatty acids and insulin resistance.
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From page 864... ...
1985. Comparison of effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipo proteins in man.
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From page 865... ...
1993. Relative effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids on cardiac arrhythmias in rats.
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From page 866... ...
1998. Changes in children's total fat intakes and their food group sources of fat, 198991 versus 199495: Implications for diet quality.
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From page 867... ...
1992. Nutrient adequacy of low fat intakes for children: The Bogalusa Heart Study.
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From page 868... ...
1993. Rela tionship of dietary saturated fatty acids and body habitus to serum insulin concentrations: The Normative Aging Study.
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From page 869... ...
1987. Dietary supplementation of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids improves insulin sensitivity in non-insulin-dependent diabetes.
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From page 870... ...
2000. Dietary fat intake and prostate cancer risk: A case-control study in Spain.
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From page 871... ...
1997. Fat preferences, dietary fat intake and body composition in children.
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From page 872... ...
1993. An ecological study of the relationship between dietary fat intake and breast cancer mortality.
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From page 873... ...
1995. Dietary intake and cell membrane levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest.
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From page 874... ...
1994. Could dietary fat intake be an important determinant of seasonal weight changes in a rural subsistence farming community in The Gambia?
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From page 875... ...
1995. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on glucose homeostasis and blood pressure in essential hypertension.
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Am J Clin Nutr 56:616622. Tuomilehto J, Lindström J, Eriksson JG, Valle TT, Hämäläinen H, Ilanne-Parikka P, Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi S, Laakso M, Louheranta A, Rastas M, Salminen V, Uusitupa M
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1997b. Dietary fat intake and risk of prostate cancer: A prospective study of 25,708 Norwegian men.
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1992. Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer.
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From page 879... ...
1992. Hydrogenation alternatives: Effects of trans fatty acids and stearic acid versus linoleic acid on serum lipids and lipoproteins in humans.
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Key Terms
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