Working Families and Growing Kids Caring for Children and Adolescents (2003) / Chapter Skim
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5. Effects of Child Care
5. Effects of Child Care
Pages 99-177
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From page 99... ...
Then we evaluate the research evidence pertaining to the effects of three aspects of early child care -- quality, type of care, and quantity -- on a wide range of child developmental outcomes. Included in this review is consideration of experimental studies of centerbased early education programs, which fulfill both child care and educa 99
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From page 100... ...
It also is possible to examine effects of timing (see Brooks Gunn et al., 2002) and trajectories of care (see NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2002c)
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From page 101... ...
The selected classrooms also were observed by the research staff, who rated process quality using the Early Child hood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS) , the Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale (ITERS)
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From page 102... ...
. Consistent with the formulation, child care researchers have developed detailed descriptions of children's activities, roles, and interpersonal relations at centers and day care homes, and with nannies and grandparents (see Clarke-Stewart, Gruber, and Fitzgerald, 1994; Howes, 1983; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 1996, 2000a)
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From page 103... ...
. Studies of child care quality have asked whether structural and caregiver characteristics as well as more process-oriented indicators of caregiving are related to child developmental outcomes.
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From page 104... ...
. In other cases, investigators (Blau, 2000; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network and Duncan, 2003, discussed below)
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From page 105... ...
Both concurrent and longer term associations are presented. Measuring Child Care Quality Process quality refers to the kinds of experiences that children have with caregivers and other children, opportunities for cognitive, linguistic, and social stimulation, and opportunities to use interesting and varied materials.
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From page 106... ...
rates process quality in child care homes (Harms and Clifford, 1989) , and the SchoolAged Care Environment Rating Scale (SACERS)
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From page 107... ...
are the only available estimates of process quality in the United States. In the NICHD study, 7 percent of the settings observed were of poor quality and 12 percent were of excellent quality.
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From page 108... ...
. This schema posits that process quality is directly related to child developmental outcomes, whereas structural-caregiver characteristics are posited to affect child outcomes indirectly through their impact on process quality.
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From page 109... ...
Then we examine research pertaining to process quality and child developmental outcomes. Finally, we consider relations between structural-caregiver characteristics and child developmental outcomes.
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From page 110... ...
Finally, there is some evidence that relations between structural-caregiver characteristics and process quality vary by child age. In a study that observed children from 6 though 36 months, group size and child-adult ratios were stronger predictors of process quality for infants, whereas caregiver educational background and training were stronger predictors of process quality for preschoolers (NICHD Study of Early Child Care, 1996, 2000a)
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From page 111... ...
Finally, we review research evidence pertaining to relations between process quality and subsequent child developmental outcomes and relations between structural-caregiver characteristics and child developmental outcomes. Children's Behaviors in the Child Care Setting.
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From page 112... ...
. Significant associations are more evident in research studies that assessed process quality at several time periods (Burchinal et al., 2002; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2000a, 2002c)
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From page 113... ...
In these analyses, effect sizes between process quality and preacademic skills and between process quality and language skills were 0.24 and 0.17, respectively. A second strategy has been to test effects of early child care experiences after controlling for concurrent quality (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, in pressb)
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From page 114... ...
and did not control for family background. Child developmental outcomes also have been examined in relation to aggregated scores of structural-caregiver characteristics.
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From page 115... ...
Recent research from the Otitis Media Study also has focused on specific structural and caregiver characteristics in relation to subsequent child developmental outcomes (Burchinal et al., 2002)
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From page 116... ...
The primary purpose of these programs is the improvement of the developmental outcomes of children who are at risk for school failure, although the programs also can function as child care, especially if they are full-day programs. Well-known examples of such programs include Head Start, which provides preschool educational services, nutrition, a health component, social services, and parent involvement for families with 3- and 4-year-old children (Zigler and Styfco, 1993)
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From page 117... ...
A random assignment evaluation of the Head Start program is now under way. Some recent work on the Chicago Parent-Child Centers, a large-scale preschool program tied to follow-on transition services through 3rd grade, attempted to adjust for selection biases by utilizing sample selection models.
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From page 118... ...
, that extended program participation was related to one half of a standard deviation improvement in reading and math scores over the comparison group, even after controlling for family risk status, child gender, and later program participation. Reynolds and Temple (1998)
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. Experimental data from welfare-towork evaluations shows no effect of mandated employment programs on Head Start use, while the use of other forms of center care appeared to increase (Chang et al., 2002)
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The largest federal initiative taking this program approach is the Early Head Start program, which in 2000 served 55,000 children ages 0 to 3 in 664 communities. This program, which provides parent education and educational child care, is implemented in center-based, home-based, and combination versions, depending on the site (each must adhere to a set of performance standards)
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From page 121... ...
also has considered the effects of center-type experience on child developmental outcomes. Children who had more experience
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An early study by Baydar and Brooks-Gunn (1991) is one of the few studies to consider explicitly the effects of grandmother care on child developmental outcomes.
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, (b) differences in family background that accounted for different amounts of child care and differences in child developmental outcomes (Richters and Zahn-Waxler, 1990; Thompson, 1988)
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From page 124... ...
and maternal sensitivity were included in the regression analyses, suggesting that the quantity findings were not mediated by the quality of caregiving provided by child care providers or mothers, at least as measured by the study investigators. Further research is needed to consider other aspects of the child care environment beyond those reflected in the measure of process quality used in the NICHD study.
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From page 125... ...
. These findings suggest that amount as well as quality and type of child care need to be considered in relation to child developmental outcomes.
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From page 126... ...
In this section, we consider research findings pertaining to effects of different types of before- and after-school care on developmental outcomes during middle childhood. Self-Care Self-care, sometimes called latchkey care (Steinberg, 1986; Woods, 1972)
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Pettit et al. also found interactions between self-care and previous child adjustment and between self-care and family income.
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From page 128... ...
Historically, school-based programs and day care centers have been funded by parental fees and served children of middleincome families, whereas community centers historically served children of low-income families (Halpern, 2002)
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Controlling for students' baseline performance in the outcomes of interest and family background characteristics such as family income, household structure, parental education, and the quality of the parent-child relationships, students who regularly at
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. Variations in process quality in after-school programs, in turn, predict child developmental outcomes (Pierce et al., 1999)
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From page 131... ...
In light of these initial differences, it is interesting to note that by the end of the school year the program participants and nonparticipants were reported to have similar levels of academic and social competence. The absence of certain baseline data, treatment and comparison group contamination, and issues surrounding the evaluation's timing and measurement are also methodological concerns in the National CCLC Evaluation.
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From page 132... ...
. Controlling for child prior performance, ethnicity, and gender as well as family demographics and parenting, children who consistently participated in extracurricular activities during kindergarten and 1st grade obtained higher reading and math scores at the end of 1st grade than children who sometimes or never participated in extracurricular activities (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2002b)
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From page 133... ...
Studies of the effects of early child care quality have considered both process quality and structural and caregiver characteristics. Process quality refers to the experiences that children have with their caregivers, with other children, and with age-appropriate activities and materials, and structural and caregiver characteristics refer to such factors as child-adult ratio, the number of children in the class or group, the amount of formal education that caregivers have, caregivers' specialized training related to children, and caregivers' wages.
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From page 134... ...
By the same token, when process quality is lower, children demonstrate poorer performance in these areas. Relevant to these findings is evidence from the NICHD study of early child care that almost 60 percent of the observed child care settings in that study were of either poor or fair quality, rather than of good or excellent quality.
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From page 135... ...
Studies that have examined the effects of voluntary structured activities (i.e., extracurricular activities) on child developmental outcomes suggest a model for after-school programs that may be particularly effective.
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From page 136... ...
37 Centers CG formal education and CG specialized training Blau (1997) 5 cities; 204 centers; Centers 37 center characteristics 1,094 teachers; 567 including group size, classrooms ratio, caregiver (reanalysis of the education, different National Child Care types of training Staffing Study)
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CG with more education more sensitive and rated higher on global quality. More experienced CG slightly more detached and provide lower-quality care.
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30 Day care centers CG education, child major, training, center experience, field experience, CG age, group size, C:A ratio, ECERS
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From page 139... ...
Higher teacher education was related to higher global quality at 12 and 36 months. ORCE-Positive Correlations Both correlational analyses and HLM Caregiving analyses indicated overall quality of CC-HOME care measure by CC-HOME and by ratings of observed CG, behavior was higher when CG was more highly educated, had more specialized training pertaining to children, and had HLM received training in the past year, with the strongest effects evident at 36 months.
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40 Center day care C:A ratio, group size, and family day number of adults, CG care years experience, training child development
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Learning activities, Pearson Higher CG education correlated with social development, correlations higher total quality scores in both language development, family day care and center day care. creative activities, total quality ECOI Pearson correlations Smaller group sizes were related to higher ratings on the Interaction Quality Composite and accommodation of varied groups.
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From page 142... ...
Howes and Total = 50 Home, center C:A ratio, group size Rubenstein Home = 23 day care, family (1985) Center day care = 11 day care Family day care = 16 Howes and 150 Child care CG characteristics Smith (1995)
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sensitivity measure multiple regression Formal education better predictor than specialized training. Infant/toddler CGs need more college-level specialized training than preschool teachers to be competent teachers.
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From page 144... ...
(1997) Center = 561 home, family in field, CG salary, CG Group home = 70 long-term educational Family = 44 goal, training characteristics, organizational climate Kontos, Training group = 130 Family day care CG training, C:A ratio, Howes, and Regulated providers group size Galinsky = 112 (1997)
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From page 145... ...
Process quality: Chi square, Training group and comparison group Arnett Scale of t-test were similar on structural, process, Provider Sensitivity, and global quality. Providers in Adult Involvement comparison group cared for slightly Scale more children per adult than training Global quality: group.
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From page 146... ...
146 WORKING FAMILIES AND GROWING KIDS TABLE A5-1 Continued Structural-Caregiver Citationa N Type of Care Variables (C:A ratio and group size) CG education x A:C ratio, lead CG wages, center structure, direct background, economic characteristics of center, state, and sector Ruopp, National Day Care Centers C:A ratio, group size, Travers, Study = 57 CG years of education, Glantz, and preschool day care child-related training, Coelen (1979)
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From page 147... ...
Better C:A ratios, lower center enrollment, and lower proportion of infant/toddler and subsidized children in center also predicted higher process quality for preschool. Teacher wages strongly related to process quality in infant/toddler classes.
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From page 148... ...
a For full references, see the report reference list. b Process quality measures alphabetized by acronym: AIS: Adult Involvement Scale; APECP: Assessment Profile for Early Childhood Programs; AQS: Attachment Q-Set; CIS: Caregiver Interaction Scale; ECERS: Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale; ECOI: Early Childhood Observation Instrument; FDCRS: Family Day Care Rating Scale; HOME: Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment; ITERS: Infant/Toddler Environment Rating
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From page 149... ...
Larger C:A ratios interaction, negative related to more frequent negative peer interaction interactions with peers. Scale; ORCE: Observational Record of the Caregiving Environment; TIS: Teacher Involvement Scale; CG = caregiver; ECE = early childhood education; C:A ratio = child:adult ratio; CC: child care.
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From page 150... ...
201 Dunn (1993) 60 51.85 ECERS Group size, C:A months Goals, strategies, ratio, CG education, and guide child's CG center experience, emotional CG field experience, development CG age Dunn, Beach, 60 51.85 ECERS CG education and Kontos months Language and training, certification, (1994)
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Controlling for SES, process quality PSI (cognitive) predicted children language development.
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152 WORKING FAMILIES AND GROWING KIDS TABLE A5-2 Continued Process Quality Structural Quality Citationa N Age Measureb Measureb Hausfather, 155 55 months ECERS ECOS Toharia, ECOS LaRoche, and Engelsmann (1997) Hestenes, 60 52 months ECERS C:A ratio, group Kontos, and teacher engagement size Bryan (1993)
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From page 153... ...
Language, preacademic, CG with at least AA in ECE higher social development PPVT-R scores, children in classes complying with C:A ratio higher prereading. Cognitive play, peer CG with BA or child development play associate degree greater child language, play and most complex play with peers, most language activity.
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From page 154... ...
months Attachment Howes and 55 20.2 Family Day Care C:A ratio, group Stewart (1987) months Rating Scale, Adult size Play with Child Scale Kontos (1991)
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From page 155... ...
Regulatable quality on social competence mediated through process quality variables and through children's relationship with adults and peers. Process mediated through children's relationship with adults and peers rather than direct influence on peer competence.
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From page 156... ...
47.9 months NICHD Early 97 6 months None C:A ratio, observed Child Care 118 15 months group size, CG Research 163 24 months training, CG Network (1999a) 250 36 months education
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From page 157... ...
Less contact with CG and more involvement in high yield activities higher cognitive competence. Child age, parent as PPVT-R, PLAI, ALI, HMR: Controlling for child age, values educator interview experimental conformity, and values social, higher total (values conformity, communication task quality of center care scores (ECERS)
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From page 158... ...
158 WORKING FAMILIES AND GROWING KIDS TABLE A5-2 Continued Process Quality Structural Quality Citationa N Age Measureb Measureb Peisner- 757 4.3 ECERS, CIS, AIS, Feinberg, and years UCLA ECOF Burchinal (1997) Phillips, 166 36-68 ECERS, DCEI C:A ratio, director's McCartney, months years of experience and Scarr (1987b)
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From page 159... ...
. More CG-C interaction better social competence ratings.
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From page 160... ...
b Quality measures alphabetized by acronym: COF: Child Observation Form; DCEI: Day Care Environment Interview; DCHERS: Day Care Home Environment Rating Scale; ECERS: Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale; ECOI: Early Childhood Observation Instrument; ECOS: Early Childhood Observation Scale; FDCRS: Family Day Care Rating Scale; ITERS: Infant-Toddler Environmental Scale. c Child developmental outcome measures alphabatized by acronym: AQS: Attachment Q-Set; AdultChild IRS: Howes and Stewart's Adult-Child Involvement Rating Scale; ALI: Adaptive Language Inventory; BSQ: Behavior Style Questionnaire; CBI: Classroom Behavior Inventory-Preschool Form; CBS QSort: Child Behavior Survey, Q-Sort version; CPS: Cognitive Play Scale; CTBS: Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills; EOWPVT: Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test; Harter: Pictorial Scale of Perceived
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From page 161... ...
High-quality care may act as a buffer for socially fearful children in positive peer interactions and nonsocial play with peers. Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children; MDI: Mental Developmental Index; PBC: Preschool Behavior Checklist; PBQ: Preschool Behavior Questionnaire; PLAI: Preschool Language Assessment Instrument; POS: Play with Objects Scale; PPS: Peer Play Scale; PPVT-R: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised; PSI: Preschool Inventory-Revised; SCS: Social Competence Scale; SICD: Sequence Inventory of Communication Development; SSPS: Spivack and Shure's Social Problem Solving Skills; TBAQ: Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire; CG = caregiver; ECE = early childhood education; C:A ratio = child:adult ratio; CC: child care; DC = day care; SES = socioeconomic status.
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From page 162... ...
162 WORKING FAMILIES AND GROWING KIDS TABLE A5-3 Longitudinal Relations Between Child Care Quality and Child Developmental Outcomes Process Quality Structural Citationa N Age Measureb Quality Measureb Blau (1999b) N = 2,503 to Variable None Mother report of 4,031, depending group size, on outcome C:A ratio, CG training; averaged 0-2 and 3-5 Broberg et al.
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From page 163... ...
process quality. Not predicted by number of siblings, gender, quality of home.
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164 WORKING FAMILIES AND GROWING KIDS TABLE A5-3 Continued Process Quality Structural Citationa N Age Measureb Quality Measureb Chin-Quee and 127 Recruited ECERS Scarr (1994) preschool, amount and follow-up 5-9 type of verbal years interaction of child and CG Deater-Deckard 141 Time 1 = Composite of C:A ratio et al.
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From page 165... ...
SES, child sex, child Composite scores of No significant correlations age, parenting stress, mother-reported between Time 1 process harsh parental behavior problems quality and Time 2 child discipline and social outcomes or between Time withdrawal and 1 C:A ratio and Time 2 teacher-reported child outcomes. behavior problems Also Time 1 process quality and social and C:A ratio did not withdrawal predict Time 2 outcomes in hierarchical regressions that controlled for Time 1 adjustment.
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From page 166... ...
80 children 45 center care, CG Composite: C:A b-4 1 year; involvement/ ratio, CG training, other full-time investment in CG stability between 1 child (toddler period) and 4 compliance (toddler period: 18, 24, 30, 36 months)
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From page 167... ...
Smaller number of arrangements better academic skills for boys and girls. Family social, family CBCL Process quality structure, child age CBI (longitudinal)
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From page 168... ...
168 WORKING FAMILIES AND GROWING KIDS TABLE A5-3 Continued Process Quality Structural Citationa N Age Measureb Quality Measureb NICHD Early 6, 15, 24, 36 Positive CG Child Care months composite, Research language Network stimulation (2000b) NICHD Early 669 24 and 36 Positive Child Care 612 months caregiving Research (ORCE)
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From page 169... ...
Developmental Language Amount of time Maternal education, Mother and More positive caregiving in CC, maternal attitude caregiver report of child more positive available other toward employment, peer competencies; sociability at 24 months, children child gender, observed peer lower proportion negative cognitive/ linguistic interaction in child interaction with peers performance at 24 care and structured observed. and 36 months, task maternal sensitivity in play, maternal psychological adjustment, family structure, number of children in home Family income, PPVT-R Higher ECERS scores education, marital WJ-R predicted higher language status, child's gender, CBI (classroom and math scores, but the child's ethnicity behavior inventory)
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From page 170... ...
c Child developmental outcome measures alphabetized by acronym: ASBI: Adaptive Social Behavior Inventory; ASB: Teacher Assessment of Social Behavior; BCL: Behavior Checklist; Boehm: Test of Basic Skills; BPI: Behavior Problems Index; BRS: Behavior Rating Scale; BSQ: Behavior Screening Questionnaire; Buck I/E Scale: Buck Internalizer/Externalizer Scale; CBCL: Child Behavior Checklist; CBI: Child Behavior Inventory; CBP: Child Behavior Profile; CTBS: Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills; MacArthur CDI:
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From page 171... ...
; SCS: Social Competence Scale; SICD: Sequence Inventory of Communication Development; SRA: Science Research Associates Achievement Battery; TBQ: Toddler Behavior Questionnaire; WJ-R: Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised; CG = caregiver; ECE = early childhood education; C:A ratio = child:adult ratio; CC: child care; DC = day care; SES = socioeconomic status. NOTE: Vandell and Wolfe (2000)
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From page 172... ...
158 (32) Excellent quality 11 (10)
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From page 173... ...
Poor quality 0 0 0 0 Fair quality 7 (33)
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From page 174... ...
31 (37) Excellent quality 1 (6)
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From page 175... ...
62 (32) Excellent quality 1 (3)
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From page 176... ...
23 (18) Excellent quality 3 (14)
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From page 177... ...
247 (37) Excellent quality 22 (14)
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