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5 Human Factors Considerations for Automatic Identification System Interface Design
Pages 105-142

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From page 105...
... Thus, a focus on human factors considerations for AIS interfaces is needed. Once a system has been designed, manufactured, and put in service, it must be maintained.
From page 106...
... How the three stages of understand­design­evaluate might be applied to the design of AIS interfaces is then discussed. A number of human factors guidelines that can assist in the design of current and future AIS interfaces are also provided.
From page 107...
... 1996.) 1 Problem & 8 Requirements Operation Analysis 2 and Support Conceptual/ Logical Design Understand 7 3 Mapping Implementation Evaluate Design Requirements to Design 6 4 System 5 Improved Development Conceptual Physical Designs Design FIGURE 5-2 Systems analysis and design framework.
From page 108...
... After these initial concepts are developed, designers conduct heuristic evaluations and usability tests with low-fidelity mock-ups or prototypes (Carroll 1995)
From page 109...
... These findings suggest that poorly designed and improperly used technology may jeopardize ship safety. In addition, AIS may eliminate many tasks, make complex tasks appear easy at a superficial level, and lead to less emphasis on training and design.
From page 110...
... Although towing vessels on the lower Missis sippi might not encounter locks, they tend to have a much larger cargo and are likely to interact with deep-draft vessels. The towing vessel observed was also a technological leader that already uses electronic charts.
From page 111...
... and vessel threat detection. The two events result in functions being performed aboard the towing vessel: communication, meeting planning, establishment of a planning agreement, vessel speed and position control, hazard monitoring, and posi tion establishment.
From page 112...
... Estimated meeting location Point where vessels are likely to pass on the basis of estimated speed and distance. This information is communicated using radio and a chart.
From page 113...
... . Use estimated speed, distance, and location of hazards to establish a meeting location.
From page 114...
... Lock approached Lock passed Have gone through the lock. for the functions includes dynamic chart information, traffic situation infor mation, estimated meeting locations, meeting conventions, meeting con straints, and immediate river/vessel interaction information, among other items.
From page 115...
... The variable speed and intention of other vessels make meeting location estimation for towing vessels difficult. Any AIS implementation should consider how to address this challenge.
From page 116...
... , electronic chart, radio, and other communica tion and navigation equipment. A stand-alone AIS simplifies the AIS design process but may place a substantial burden on the mariner and severely undermine the utility of the AIS.
From page 117...
... Another strategy is to integrate AIS information into the displays and con trols of existing bridge equipment. The design must consider the type of judgments the mariner must make and the type of constraints under which the mariner must operate; the display needs to support these judgments and make the constraints visible.
From page 118...
... To avoid this danger AIS design must carefully evaluate the tasks and decisions AIS is to support and then integrate, transform, and present data in a form that is most cognitively consistent with the tasks it is meant
From page 119...
... The ideal AIS interface for an oceangoing tanker may be quite different from an interface for a towing vessel on an inland waterway. The operational dif ferences have implications for the way in which AIS may be integrated with other bridge systems and how data are combined into useful information.
From page 120...
... . In another instance, an automated navigation system mal functioned and the crew failed to intervene, allowing the Royal Majesty cruise ship to drift off course for 24 hours before it ran aground (Lee and Sanquist 2000; NTSB 1997)
From page 121...
... . The following are specific problems with automation that seem relevant to AIS development and implementation: Trust calibration, Configuration errors, Workload, Skill loss and training, and Disrupted human interactions.
From page 122...
... Clumsy automation can be avoided by minimizing data entry and configuration re quirements and reducing the number of adjustments the mariner might need to make in high-workload periods.
From page 123...
... Datalink is proposed to replace air to-ground radio communications with digital messages that are typed in and appear on a display panel that will eliminate informal information that is cur rently conveyed by voice inflection (Kerns 1991)
From page 124...
... Lawrence Seaway as well. Because commercial towing vessels and other inland waterway vessels are equipped with modern radar, VHF/FM radios, magnetic compasses, and
From page 125...
... While the committee believes that training will always be an important factor in the successful introduction of AIS displays, it also believes that a training program will be most useful when it is integrated with a regular, comprehensive operator training program. DESIGNING THE AIS INTERFACE USING HUMAN FACTORS PRINCIPLES While it will be important ultimately to tailor the AIS interface design to its intended uses, users, and context, certain general principles should be applied to its design and evaluation.
From page 126...
... In the following sec tions human factors design principles that appear to be particularly critical for AIS design are identified, and recent trends in information representation that may complement the traditional reliance on visual displays are discussed. Human Factors Considerations for AIS Interface Design The following paragraphs briefly discuss some of the best-known and widely accepted heuristics and design principles (from Nielsen and Levy 1994; Shneiderman 1998; Wickens et al.
From page 127...
... It should follow conventions in the particular domain and use words, phrases, and concepts that are familiar to the mariner rather than system- or engineering-oriented terms. This will reduce training time because it avoids the need for mariners to adapt to the system, and it will help avoid errors (e.g., formatting errors in data entry)
From page 128...
... Users learn certain color coding schemes or symbols, and it is likely that they will transfer their interpretation of information from known to new displays. As mentioned in Chapter 4, one problem with proposed AIS designs that has been iden tified already is that symbology requirements have not yet been fully har monized across different electronic navigation platforms.
From page 129...
... It is desirable to avoid requiring that these data be accessed in a serial fashion because this imposes considerable memory demands on the part of the operator. This principle calls for the integra tion of AIS information with existing related information on the bridge [such as the electronic charting and display information systems (ECDIS)
From page 130...
... This principle is discussed in more detail in the following section. Multimodal Shipboard AIS Displays The introduction of computerized systems to a variety of domains has in creased the potential for collecting, transmitting, and transforming large
From page 131...
... One of the main reasons for observed problems with data overload is the increasing, almost exclusive, reliance on visual information presentation in interface design. The same tendency can be observed in the development of proposed AIS displays.
From page 132...
... Because sound does not require the focused attention of a visual display, it may enable operators to monitor complex situations. Just as with visual displays, combining sounds generates a gestalt from the inter action of the components (Brewster 1997)
From page 133...
... In addition to creating multisensory system output, it will be desirable to consider different modalities for providing input to AIS. For example, in some circumstances, the use of a keyboard for AIS data entry may not be possible or desirable.
From page 134...
... EVALUATION Heuristic Evaluation of AIS Interface Heuristic evaluation, first proposed by Nielsen and Molich (1990) , is a low cost usability testing method for the initial evaluation of human­machine interfaces.
From page 135...
... For this reason, operational test and evaluation is a critical element of the design and evaluation process. Operational test and evaluation places the AIS interface in an actual operational environment to assess how it supports the operator in the full range of conditions that might be encountered.
From page 136...
... A combination of design, process, and performance standards may be necessary to promote effective AIS displays and controls. SUMMARY Human factors considerations of AIS span a broad range that includes standards development, operational testing, training and certification, and research and development.
From page 137...
... A combination of design stan dards, process standards, and performance standards is needed to ensure adequate interface design without interfering with the ability of designers to create effective AIS interfaces in the context of rapidly changing technology. These standards should evolve as the mariners' use of AIS changes over time.
From page 138...
... 1990b. Cognitive Consequences of "Clumsy" Automation on High Workload, High Consequence Human Performance.
From page 139...
... In Automation and Human Performance (R. Parasuraman and M
From page 140...
... 1990. Heuristic Evaluation of User Interfaces.
From page 141...
... In Human Performance in Automated Systems: Current Research and Trends (M. Mouloua and R
From page 142...
... 1991. Nosocomial Automation: Technology-Induced Complexity and Human Performance.


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