Proceedings of the International Conference on Scientific Information Two Volumes (1959) / Chapter Skim
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Planned and Unplanned Scientific Information
Planned and Unplanned Scientific Information
Pages 199-244
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From page 199... ...
C., the Bureau of Applied Social Research of Columbia University has undertaken to explore ways in which communication research by interview survey methods can contribute to an understanding of the needs and means of scientific information-exchange. On the basis of such an understanding, proposals to improve scientific communication might be generated and evaluated.
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From page 200... ...
The exploratory study was intended to define problems, categories, and procedures for more systematic investigation. Although this report contains numerous frequency counts based on interview responses, they are to be regarded as illustrations of the possible outcome of further work and not as reliable findings.
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From page 201... ...
Thirdly, we believe that policies to improve the scientific communication system must be planned in terms of the entire range of its contributions to scientific progress, and not only in terms of the most obviously necessary informational services. At the present time, most plans are quite naturally directed at maximizing the efficiency of the system in the performance of its two most obvious functions: that of bringing scientists the available answers to specific questions, and that of keeping them abreast of current developments in given areas.
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From page 202... ...
At least this was a frequent experience among the scientists we interviewed, in spite of the fact that their intentional activities for gathering information about current developments ranged all the way from the assiduous perusal of current periodicals to the button-holing of colleagues who had returned from conferences. It was thought that it would be instructive to examine instances of significant scientific news coming to the attention of scientists through other ways than those which they systematically employ to "keep up." This line of investigation was included in our study not only to learn about the operation of communication through informal and personal channels; by implication, it was thought, this approach would also throw light on possible inadequacies in the formally established methods of bringing current news to the scientist.
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From page 203... ...
This, of course, is in addition to the countless times when a scientist comes upon some useful information which he had not anticipated in the course of his routine perusal of journals, or in the course of listening to the program of meetings which he regularly attends. What is meant here is rather a scientist searching the literature in order to find the answer to some specific question, and coming across pertinent information of another sort, information which he would probably not have seen had it not been for the accident of his search for the first topic.
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From page 204... ...
(We exclude here information gleaned during corridor conversations at scientific meetings, or on any other occasion attended for the explicit purpose of gathering news.) This may happen frequently during informal visits by one scientist to the laboratory of another.
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From page 205... ...
Total Published Not published 10 6 4 3 4 2 2 1 4 8 4 4 35 16 19 a Exclusive of information learned through ordinary intercourse with departmental colleagues, while scanning the literature, while attending meetings, or while engaging in any other activity explicitly designed to find out what is new.
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From page 206... ...
For while there is only a small likelihood that any accidentally obtained piece of information will be of use to the individual scientist who obtained it, the likelihood that it will be of interest to at least one of his departmental colleagues is much larger. And if enough members of a given department or research group are plugged into branches of the professional grapevine through consultantships, secondary appointments at other institutions, committee services, and personal correspondence and visits, they may collectively be able to assure each of them a good share of the news about work in progress that interests him.
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From page 207... ...
This can be seen when one examines the ways in which scientists secure the available answers to specific questions. Yet no other function of the scientific communication system has received more solicitous care through formal arrangements than this "reference function." Copious amounts of planned effort ant!
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From page 208... ...
SEARCHES OUTSIDE THE LITERATURE Here, once again, our exploratory study sought to gain insight by examining the reverse side of the coin. Instances when scientists secured answers to specific questions in other ways than those deliberately designed for this purpose were recorded.
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From page 209... ...
TABLE 3. Answers to specific questions sought through personal channels: nature of the information sought Nature of the information sought Publication or indexing unlikely [:acts to be newly established Practical details on: Materials Apparatus Techniques Findings Publication.
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From page 210... ...
They may also give some insight into what is perhaps, lacking in the communication picture of scientists in less favored positions, where opportunities of access to experts are not so ample. Nearly half the inquiries here recorded were addressed to scientists who were easily identified as the ones most qualified to answer the particular question: they were the authors of publications on which clarification was sought, the developers of instruments or techniques regarding which course!
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From page 211... ...
TABLE 4. Answers to specific questions sought through personal channels: source used Source to whom inquiry was addressee!
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From page 212... ...
Detailed questions on the furnishings of answers to specific questions The following paragraphs refer to the communication function last discussed: enabling scientists to find the available answers to specific questions.
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From page 213... ...
In those cases where the information was to appear in print later, the experts may judge whether the time saved by using personal contacts was essential. To examine empirically how adequately the information in question is now available to those who seek it, it would be useful to ascertain what is done by scientists who lack access to personal sources of information when they have call for information comparable to that obtained through personal contact by .
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From page 214... ...
Policies which may enhance the electiveness of personal contacts as channels for securing the answers to specific questions again are of two kinds.
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From page 215... ...
Survey research could tell the semanticists what type of information is at present felt to be ineffable in this sense. No doubt some information would still remain hard to convey without mutual discussion, or without "being shown." Where that is the case, making the personal channels of communication more widely usable is the only recourse.
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From page 216... ...
questions on keeping scientists up to date The following paragraphs refer to the ways in which scientists are kept abreast of current developments in the research areas which are relevant to their own work in one way or another. Some of the issues that seem to face scientific communication policy in this regard and some of the pertinent questions for further investigation will be outlined.
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From page 217... ...
If information about current scientific developments which scientists obtained "too late" or through personal channels was in print at the time, it should be examined further to see why it had not come to the scientists' attention through the literature. Three kinds of reasons may be suggested: (`a)
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From page 218... ...
If scientists frequently miss news items that appeared in journals which they do not scan, it may be more practical to improve their coverage in secondary media—indices, abstracts, reading lists than to adjust the scientists' reading habits, especially with regard to journals that only intermittently carry news of relevance to the scientists concerned. It would be important to know whether any substantial number of scientists misses the same items of information due to their appearance in journals which they do not scan because they carry news of interest to them tOO infrequently.
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From page 219... ...
It is necessary to recognize the most fruitful occasions for person-to-person exchanges (conferences, corridor conversations, visits, etc.~; the positions whose incumbents can become nodal points of information-exchange (consultantships, service on award committees, editorial duties, etc.~; and the nature of relays through which information may be usefully passed on and shared (through friends at other institutions, through contact with good correspondents and readers, through departmental colleagues who return from conferences and visits, etc.~. Because the usefulness of personal communication differs from discipline to discipline, and possibly from specialty to specialty, the factors which determine its differential utility must be taken into account.
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From page 220... ...
If so, what are the clues which are lacking? This may suggest improvements in the provision of titles, subtitles, prefatory abstracts, or other clues, as a matter of editorial policy.
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From page 221... ...
In either event, the nature of the information which is secured in the media scanned with low efficiency may suggest utilizing one of the specialized media which were mentioned in Item 6. The number of scientists who share identical difficulties will have to determine the proper course of action.
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From page 222... ...
For example, if it should be felt that some scientists do not take interest in a sufficiently broad span of current developments, the wise assignment to them of certain duties may provide a remedy. Many of the scientists interviewed asserted that their teaching duties caused them to keep up with a much broader range of developments than they otherwise would, and that this had important consequences for their research work.
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From page 223... ...
In particular, whenever a question called for the retelling of an actual episode of information transmittal, the word RECONSTRUCT, printed on the schedule form, instructed the interviewer to follow a detailed prepared list of questions in order to obtain a complete account.
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From page 224... ...
224 Determining Literature and Reference Needs of Scientists AREA ~ Do you expect to take up work in any new specialties in the foreseeable future? No ~ ~ Yes ~ ~ In which?
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From page 225... ...
your attention to something you might have missed n 7r7r 2.0 If it were up to you would you rather do more or less teaching than you actually~o? More ~ ~ Less ~ ~ As is Now let us turn to your research work.
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From page 226... ...
Yes ( ) : RECONSTRUCT h~## 4.11 I will now ask you some questions about your need to be informed of current developments in different fields.
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From page 227... ...
and h. Is ordinary conversation enough, or do you have to ask specific questions?
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From page 228... ...
and h. Is ordinary conversation enough, or do you have to ask specific questions?
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From page 229... ...
ADAPT 4.31 AND 4.32 (RANK ABOVE) #7Y# 4.51 When you need an answer to some specific question in ("2")
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From page 230... ...
230 Determining Literature and Reference Needs of Scientists AREA ~ 5.2 Did you take any other trips out of town for professional purposes during the last 12 months? No ~ ~ Yes ~ ~ Where to?
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From page 231... ...
l MENZEL Planned and Unplanned Scientific Communication 231 5.7 Are there any changes you would recommend in the ways meetings are planned and organized?
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From page 232... ...
232 Determining Literature and Reference Needs of Scientists AREA Any informal discussion clubs, lunch groups, or the like? REMINDER: How about Other campus]
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From page 233... ...
(You have already told me something about that but I have some specific questions I would like to ask.) 8.1 1 Here (Chart 5)
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From page 234... ...
234 Determining Literature and Reference Needs of Scientists AREA ~ 8.12 Are there any other journals, not listed there, which you also regularly scan?
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From page 235... ...
1 MEN ZEL Planned and Unplanned Scientific Communication 8.53 Do you make use of any translating service?
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Q 4.~1 In which of these subjects do you try to keep up with current developments in detail?
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From page 237... ...
MEN ZEL Planned and Unplanned Scientific Communication CHART ~ (CHEMISTRY)
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From page 238... ...
4.~l In which of these subjects do you try to keep up with current developments In detail? Entire bv circling the figure "I." _, , _ C, ~ (Subdivide or add fields by write-in as necessary.)
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From page 239... ...
By providing me with: . answers to specific questions that arise injury work b.
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From page 240... ...
240 Determining Literature and Refere? ~ce Needs of Scientists ARFA _ ~ ' ^ ^ ^ ~ ~Z ~ o _ _ _ _ C`3 o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3 ~ 0 _ _ _ _ _ ~ .o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ o~ ~ _ _ _ _ cd o O ~ _ ~ ~ _ _ ~ _ .
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From page 241... ...
MEN ZEL Planned and Unplanned Scientific Communication CHART 5 (BIOCHEMISTRY)
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From page 242... ...
242 CHART 5 (CHEMISTRY) Determining Literature and Reference Needs of Scientists AREA 1 Q
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From page 243... ...
1 MENZEL Planned and Unplanned Scientific Communication CHART 5 (ZOOLOGY)
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