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From page 45... ...
Environmenta influences are wide-ranging and inc ude infectious agents, toxins such as lead and air pollution, and socia factors such as loving interactions with caregivers, socioeconomic resources m the family and community, and peer relationships, segregation, racism, cu ture, the avai ability and qua ity of services, and policies that direcdy or indirecdy affect these other interactive ins fences (see Box 3-1)
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From page 46... ...
46 CH19DREN'S HEAETH, THE NATIONS METE Children s biology Children s behavior BOX 3-1 Organization of influences on Children's Health Physical environment · Prenatal exposures · Childhood exposures · Home school and wore saltings · Child injury ar d the provision of safe environments · The built environment Social environment · Family · Community · Culture · Discrimination services Policy a childhood stage, hea th influences can act en very different ways because of the differing culture interpretations that families attach to them. While biology, behavior, and environments categories are usefu for organrzrng our discussion, it is Important to understand that hea thy development is not the product of single, isolated Influences or even types of influences.
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From page 47... ...
INFWENCES ON CHIIDREHS HEAETH 47 primarily or only in certain population groups. A related problem is that few of the cited studies inc ude data that represent the whole popu alien of children.
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From page 48... ...
. Genes and the Physical Environment.
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From page 49... ...
Examples inc ude a higher risk of lung cancer in mdividua s lacking g utathione S-transferase mu who smoke (Perera et a ., 2002) and noise-induced hearing loss in some individua s exposed to high leve s of noise the gene or genes in this case are just being discovered (Kozel et a., 2002)
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From page 50... ...
and maylead to adaptive or ma adaptive phenotypes. An interesting example is the hygiene theory of childhood asthma, which postal ates that children living m hygienic, low-pathogen environments develop an imba ance between two types of immune ce I c asses (TH I and TH2)
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From page 51... ...
Re atively lower body burdens of organic mercury will reduce cognitive deve opment in young chi dren more th m at older ages (U.S. Environmenta Protection Agency, 2000c; Nationa Research Council, 2000)
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From page 52... ...
Low materna or feta leve s of vitamin A are associated with developmenta disease, as are high levels. The impact of some body burdens vary across time and, to be understood, must be assessed at different times.
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From page 53... ...
These m turn a ter the chi d's eventua hea th outcomes. Examples include socia and interactions behaviors (e.g., compliance with parents requests, peer interactions)
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From page 54... ...
For example,parenting style, family traditions, and peer influences affect not only fairly simple youth behaviors, such as compliance with behaviors requests or participation in hea th prevention programs (Patterson and Fisher, 2002) , but a so more complex behaviors, such as participation with disease management regimens.
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From page 55... ...
. In accordance with these models, data suggest that both parents' and youths' attitudes are moderately predictive of subsequent hea th care behaviors, whether
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From page 56... ...
. These conceptua considerations lead drrectdy to specific Interventions, such as motivations enhancement strategies to encourage youths' substance abuse treatment compliance (Carroll et a .,2001)
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From page 57... ...
Exposure is the sum of all exposure factors over the course of time, mcluding the home, school, child care, and play areas. Exposures durmg the prenatal period can a sn affect children's hea th.
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From page 58... ...
Tobacco use during pregnancy is a major cause of feta and newborn morbidity and morta ity (sma I for gestations age, persistent pu mona y hypertension, sudden infant death syndrome, poorer intellectua functioning) (Nicholl, 1989; Golding, 1997; Day et a ., 1992; Kline, 1987; U.S.
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From page 59... ...
. Air Pollutants Six outdoor air pollutants are regulated by the C ean Air Act: ozone, respirable particu ate matter, lead, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide (CO)
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From page 60... ...
, ratherthanssveral dittsrsnt snvironmentr. Intants and toddisrs who ars trequsntly placed on ths foor, carpst, grr~s, or a blankst ars sxposed to chemicals r~sociated with thess surtacss, such r~ tormaldshyds and volatils organic chemicals trom synthstic carpst (Bsmstsin, 19B4)
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From page 61... ...
. Nommal behavioral devehpmr nL Childrsn's normal behavioral development also infusncss snvironmenLal exposures.
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From page 62... ...
. Cytomega ovirus infection is spread m child care centers through both urine and sa iva containing live virus; rates for preschool-age children in the United States range from approximately 5 to 30 percent (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1985)
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From page 63... ...
. in a sample of 1,218 children, I in 20 school-age children had minima sensorineura hear no loss and 37 percent of the children with this hearing loss failed at least one grade (K-12)
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From page 64... ...
exposures. For example, child care exposure to cigarette smoke may differ from exposure in children's own homes (Wright et a., 1989)
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From page 65... ...
Recommendations include counse ing parents on use of infant car seats, never leaving infants and todd ers a one m pools or bathtubs, the use of safety equipment for in-line skating and skateboardmg, and f rearm safety. The use of playground equipment is the leading cause of injuries to children in school and chi d care environments, with 211,000 children receiving emergency department care annua Iy for injuries sustained on playgrounds (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1999a)
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From page 66... ...
. Reviews of injury prevention from motor vehic es in children focus a most entirely on seat belts, car seats, air bags, and other engineering approaches or on law enforcement and education (Pitt et a., 1990; Durbin, 1999; Towner and Ward, 1998; Rivara and Aithen, 1998; Rivara, 1999)
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From page 67... ...
Physical Acavity The built environment plays a major role in promoting or hampering physica activity in chi dren. Schools, parks, and even sidewa ks that are integrated into the design of a community can encourage physica activity.
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From page 68... ...
Thus, whi e in genera a specific influence may be negative or positive, may be of greater or lesser impact at a given developments stage, and may show its effects at the time or at some time m the future, it is often the presence and absence of other Family domographicri · socioeconomic status · Pamily compor.ition and size Family processes · Parenting · Pamily reaming environment · Parental mental health · Parental substance abuse BOX 3-3 Family influences
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From page 69... ...
. Two studies have shown that parents monitoring has positive effects not only on their chi dren's performance in the classroom, but a so in terms of positive hea th outcomes; these chi dren had higher grades, greater self-reliance, lower rates of sexua risk behaviors and substance abuse, and a so less anxiety, depression, and involvement in delinquent behaviors (Wu et a., 2003; Steinberg et a., 1991)
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From page 70... ...
metaana ysis of 92 studies addressing the impact of divorce on chi dren found that its impact depends on their ages. Among preschool children, divorce generally had small negative effects on their socia adjustment but no effects in other domains.
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From page 71... ...
. There is some evidence that religiosity among adolescents contributes to lower rates of violence, substance abuse, and emotions distress it has a so been related to more hea th-promoting behavior, such as proper nutrition, exercise, later onset of sexua nntercmlrse, Increased academic competence, and higher levels of life satisfaction (Resnicket a., 1997; Wallace and Forman, 1998; Wa lace et a., 2003; Barnes et a ., 2000)
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From page 72... ...
Parenta depression andpsychologica distress can have powerful negative effects on chi d well-being. Depression has been estimated to
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From page 73... ...
, leading to the hypotheses that the adverse effects of materna depression are most evident when compounded by other sources of stress, such as physica abuse, marita discord, and substance abuse (Seifer, 1996; Sameroff and Fiese, 1989)
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From page 74... ...
. As with our discussion of family influences, we organize our discussion of neighborhood and community influences using the distinction between demography and processes.
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From page 75... ...
However, interactions between preschool children ted their kin, neighbors, re igious communities, and child care and hea th systems suggest that neighborhood influences begin long before adolescence (Chase-Lansda e et a .,1997)
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From page 76... ...
Are they tru y the resu t of the schoolmg, or do they instead reflect the greater ability or motivation that leads some chl dren to complete more schooling? The most sophisticated studies strong y suggest causa impacts of schoolnng on earnings as we I as other positive outcomes, with the apparent socia rate of return to investing in additions years of schoolnng averaging around 10 percent (Card, 1999)
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From page 77... ...
. The most extreme form of community violence, reflected m homicide rates, reached its peak in the early 1990s and has since been on a decline (Cole, 1999)
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From page 78... ...
. Peer influences.
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From page 79... ...
. Aswith television, research has converged to suggest that playing violent video games contributes to aggressive behavior (Anderson and Bushman, 2001; Benslq and Van Eenwyk, 2001; Sherry, 2001)
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From page 80... ...
, both conclude that serua violence has been found to be arousing to ser offenders, force-oriented men, and sometimes even to "norma " young men if the woman is portrayed as being aroused by the assau t. Medda Use, Cognitive Development, and Academic Skills.
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From page 81... ...
. Much less is known about the effects of video games and computer technologies, but some theorists have proposed that the interactive character of these activities makes them more potent than television as sources of sensorimotor skill, late lectua stimu ation, and messages about violence md other socia behaviors (Ca vert and Tan, 1994; Cocking and Greenfield, 1996; Greenfield, 1994)
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From page 82... ...
One possibility is that of selection biasi that is, first-generation immigrants to the United States may be the heathiest and most motivated subset of potentia immigrant families. But it has a so been hypothesized that traditiona cultura practices serve as protective factors.
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From page 83... ...
suggested that recognition of different kinds of effects from racism, inc uding on children, cou d help to sort out the pathways by which the multifactoria and mteractmg influences affect various aspects of hea th. To that effect, a recent review (McKenzie, 2003)
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From page 84... ...
. The benefits of a strong primary care orientation are even more sa utary for children than for adults (Shi and Starfield, 2002)
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From page 85... ...
. The Back to Sleep campaign, armed at educating adults on proper infant sleeping position, has been credited with a dramatic reduction in the occurrence of sudden infant death syndrome (Willmger et a., 1998)
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From page 86... ...
. TreatmentTABLE 3-1 Illustrative Services for Children, Youth, and Families Treatment Oriented High risk mother and infant rare r.rrrires Emergency medical services Smoking and substance abuse cessation programs Acute medical rare Mental health, beiharioral treatment, and therapy Chronic dirrar~ management Medication management, rehabi itation therapies Crisis intervention High risk mother and meant rare r.rrrires Emergenrymedira r,ernres Smoking and substance abuse cessation programs Acute medical rare Mental health, beiharioral t eatment, and therapy Chronic djrrarc management Crisis intervention Long Term care, Home and Community Based care Long term inpatient mental health rare Chemotherapy, cancer radiation treatment Convalescent and rehabiFtadon rare Chi d protective Errs es Home visiting Home hea th Due Child rare School bated Vilnius C no management rare roordjrtation Caregiver respite After School programs Peer support groups for adolescents So`;ial ski L development stress management School bated spend education and rehabiFtadon for developments de ay, learning disability, m`;nkl hea oh problems and programs for girted and ta ented sty dents
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From page 87... ...
. Innumerable serious injuries and deaths have been prevented by traffic safety standards, such as car seats and speed limits (Sleet et a., 2003; Farmer et a., 1999)
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From page 88... ...
There has been some debate about whether water fluoridation Increases the risk of a range of other hea th conditions, including cancer, osteoporosis, and Down syndrome. A review by the Nationa Research Counci (NRC)
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From page 89... ...
, md most unmsured chi dren sti I receive medica care, the increased access to hea th care afforded by Medicaid has been associated with better birth outcomes (Currie and Gruber, 1 996b ) , lower rates of p reventable i Iness (Starfield, 1 985a)
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From page 90... ...
for work than in those that did not The packages of work supports were quite diverse, ranging from generous earnings supplements provided a one to more comprehensive packages of earnings supplements, child care assistance, hea th Insurance, and even temporary community service jobs. At the same time, these experiments produced evidence of negative effects on adolescent achievementacross a I types n f program s, a though a prom an cat nonerperimenta study did not replicate the negative adolescent resu ts (Chase-Lansda e et a ., 2003)
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