Growing Up Global The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries (2005) / Chapter Skim
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PART II Preparation for Adult Roles
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67 3 Schooling INTRODUCTION Learning occurs more intensely during childhood and adolescence than during other phases of the life cycle in all domains, whether it is the development of physical or cognitive skills or the acquisition of knowledge and the shaping of values and beliefs. This is not just because of the obvious fact that growth always appears more rapid when starting from a lower base.
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68 GROWING UP GLOBAL This chapter explores the process of becoming an educated adult during the second decade of life and beyond in the context of rapid global change. This process involves the acquisition of relevant capacities, including cognitive competencies, marketable skills, social capital, and complementary values and motivations, that enable individuals to function effectively in a range of adult roles, including worker, household provider, parent, spouse, family caretaker, citizen, and community participant.
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SCHOOLING 69 form efforts. Throughout these discussions, we recognize that changes in the quantity and quality of schooling provided are to an important extent a response to increased demand for schooling on the part of young people and their families.
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70 GROWING UP GLOBAL increase with the more rapid changes that are being experienced by young people today. The acquisition of human capital is only one of several types of capital potentially acquired in school.
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SCHOOLING 71 ture and language, respect for the natural environment, and the acquisition of a spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, and gender equality (United Nations, 1989)
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72 GROWING UP GLOBAL vide country by country data to complement the tables in the text that are based on regional and country income groups. Current Patterns of School Participation Table 3-1 presents aggregate country-level data on patterns of current school attendance6 by age according to regional and income grouping (see definitions in Appendix A)
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SCHOOLING 73 TABLE 3-1 Percentage Currently Attending School, DHS Countries Weighteda Averages Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 Ages 20-24 Region or Income Level Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Region Africa Eastern/Southern Africa 74.1 70.6 52.2 39.4 16.4 9.1 Western/Middle Africa 66.1 57.6 48.1 34.3 24.2 12.2 Asiab South-central/South-eastern Asiac 81.0 76.0 47.1 37.3 16.9 9.8 Former Soviet Asiad 98.4 98.9 56.1 54.4 13.2 11.7 Latin America and Caribbean Caribbean/Central America 80.0 77.8 50.9 44.2 21.3 16.5 South America 92.9 93.1 60.5 61.7 22.0 23.8 Middle East Western Asia/Northern Africa 81.0 67.6 47.7 37.4 17.5 10.3 Income Levele Low 75.3 69.2 46.4 34.0 17.5 8.8 Lower middle 86.6 84.1 57.4 54.0 20.1 16.5 Upper middle 91.4 87.2 59.6 58.1 22.1 22.1 TOTAL -- All DHS 79.8 74.6 50.4 41.2 18.7 12.2 aWeighting is based on United Nations population estimates for year 2000 (World Population Prospects: The 2000 Revision)
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74 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 3-2 Recent Trends in School Attendance in India and China China India Sex and Age 1989 1997 % Growth 1992 1999 % Growth Boys 12-13 93 96 3.2 76 81 6.2 Girls 12-13 92 96 4.3 56 67 19.6 Boys 14-15 77 85 10.4 35 69 74.3 Girls 14-15 69 84 21.7 23 52 126.1 Boys 16-17 38 65 71.1 n.a.a 54 n.a.a Girls 16-17 31 59 90.3 n.a.a 37 n.a.a aInformation on attendance was not asked of those over the age of 15 in 1992 survey.
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SCHOOLING 75 Differentials in Attendance by Wealth and Residence and Other Characteristics Globalization is sometimes claimed to benefit most those who are relatively better off. Thus, it is interesting to look separately at current enrollment patterns among the most privileged in each country.
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76 GROWING UP GLOBAL distribution in each country. While the top 20 percent in Mali may not resemble the top 20 percent in South Africa, they share in common their relative position in their own countries.
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SCHOOLING 77 TABLE 3-4 Index of Inequality in School Attendance by Wealth, DHS Countries, High versus Low Wealth Weighted Averagesa Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 Region or Income Level Boys Girls Boys Girls Region Africa Eastern/Southern Africa 24.7 27.3 18.8 33.3 Western/Middle Africa 45.1 54.9 55.8 70.2 Asia South-central/South-eastern Asiab 20.2 25.1 52.1 63.5 Former Soviet Asia 0.6 0.5 19.5 29.2 Latin America and Caribbean Caribbean/Central America 24.6 24.2 52.3 61.0 South America 10.1 8.5 33.9 33.3 Middle East Western Asia/Northern Africa 24.1 43.8 41.7 65.7 Income Level Low 27.2 33.7 46.5 61.8 Lower middle 18.8 21.2 42.1 43.5 Upper middle 10.5 15.7 25.9 34.6 TOTAL -- All DHS 23.1 28.7 42.5 54.3 aWeighting is based on United Nations population estimates for year 2000 (World Population Prospects: The 2000 Revision)
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78 GROWING UP GLOBAL combined (ages 6-14) , ranges from 9.0 in Kerala to 59.9 in Bihar (Filmer and Pritchett, 2001)
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SCHOOLING 79 are greatest in the low-income countries (where attendance rates are lower) and much higher among older adolescents.
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80 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 3-6 Trends in Percentage Ever Attended School, DHS Countries Weighted Averages Ages 10-14 Ages 20-24 Ages 30-34 Region or Income Level Male Female Male Female Male Female Region Africa Eastern/Southern Africa 81.1 77.8 83.4 74.4 81.5 68.3 Western/Middle Africa 74.0 65.9 72.3 56.6 64.8 46.2 Asia South-central/South-eastern Asia 90.6 82.3 85.9 67.6 76.9 54.7 Former Soviet Asia 99.5 99.8 99.7 99.5 99.6 99.7 Latin America and Caribbean Caribbean/Central America 92.0 91.7 89.7 85.7 84.6 77.6 South America 98.2 98.8 95.6 97.1 94.1 93.9 Middle East Western Asia/Northern Africa 92.6 83.4 91.5 77.1 84.4 65.1 Income Level Low 87.0 79.1 83.5 66.2 75.3 54.0 Lower middle 95.2 91.0 93.9 87.1 89.7 80.4 Upper middle 97.8 97.4 95.9 95.4 93.9 91.0 TOTAL -- All DHS 89.0 82.3 85.9 71.4 78.8 60.7 school. Table 3-6 presents comparable data weighted by population size across region and country income group on trends in the percentage ever enrolled over the last two decades based on the DHS data.9 The weighted average for all 49 DHS countries for the most recent period is 82 percent ever attended for girls and 89 percent for boys.
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SCHOOLING 81 points for girls. As a result, the gender gap has narrowed considerably.
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82 GROWING UP GLOBAL 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage of 30-34-Year-Olds Pe rc en ta ge o f 1 014 -Y ea r O ld s Boys Girls FIGURE 3-1 Percentage ever attending school, all DHS countries. SOURCE: Appendix Table 3-2.
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SCHOOLING 83 and Zimbabwe -- girls' attendance rates equal or exceed those of boys, a phenomenon already apparent in almost all of Latin America (Behrman, Duryea, and Szekely, 2004; Hewett and Lloyd, 2005) (see Appendix Table 3-5)
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84 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 3-7 Trends in Percentage Completing Four or More Years of Schooling, DHS Countries Weighted Averages Ages 15-19 Ages 25-29 Ages 35-39 Region or Income Level Male Female Male Female Male Female Region Africa Eastern/Southern Africa 68.3 63.8 71.2 61.3 67.6 48.2 Western/Middle Africa 68.4 56.6 64.6 48.0 59.4 37.0 Asia South-central/South-eastern Asia 81.4 69.1 75.2 53.5 66.3 43.5 Former Soviet Asia 99.0 99.4 99.4 99.6 99.7 99.5 Latin America and Caribbean Caribbean/Central America 69.6 71.8 69.4 62.0 59.0 48.6 South America 81.8 87.8 82.0 82.3 77.8 75.7 Middle East Western Asia/Northern Africa 88.8 76.8 84.0 65.7 76.9 52.3 Income Level Low 77.4 65.7 72.7 52.3 64.8 41.4 Lower middle 88.5 84.3 85.0 76.9 78.9 68.1 Upper middle 84.6 88.5 84.8 82.7 81.6 75.4 TOTAL -- All DHS 79.4 70.1 75.3 58.1 68.0 47.8 convergence in male and female primary school completion rates, they estimate that only 53 percent of girls ages 10-14 and 58 percent of boys ages 10-14 in the late 1990s in sub-Saharan Africa completed primary school.12 Table 3-8 summarizes trends in mean grades attained among 20-2412Because of late ages of entry, repetition, and long primary school cycles, many 15- to 19year-old students in Africa are still attending primary school. In order to estimate primary school completion rates for those currently ages 10-14, the authors deflated the percentage of the age group that ever attended using the ratio of the percentage completing relative to the percentage ever entering based on the experience of older cohorts.
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SCHOOLING 85 year-olds using DHS data.13 It is supplemented by Table 3-9 which shows comparable data from Latin America based on 1970 and 1980 birth cohorts, including countries from the upper middle and lower middle income category. Here there is a great diversity of schooling achievement across countries.
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86 GROWING UP GLOBAL 585858575654 46 53504845 40 33 26 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10-1415-1920-2425-2930-3435-3940-44 Age Range Boys Girls Author estimates late 1960s early 1970s late 1970s early 1980s late 1980s early 1990s late 1990s Pe rc en ta ge FIGURE 3-2 Trends in proportion completing primary school, 24 African countries. SOURCE: Hewett and Lloyd (2005)
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SCHOOLING 87 Across the board, the rate of growth in grade attainment for girls has exceeded that for boys, with the result that the gender gap has narrowed considerably. The average growth rates for both boys and girls living in low-income countries are particularly striking.
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88 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 3-9 Trends in Mean Grades Attained -- Latin America 1970 Cohort 1960 Cohort % Change Income Level and Country Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Upper Middle Income Brazil 6.5 7.0 6.0 6.4 8.3 9.4 Chile 11.3 10.8 10.3 10.0 9.7 8.0 Costa Rica 8.2 8.7 9.3 8.3 –11.8 4.8 Mexico 8.9 9.0 8.3 7.7 7.2 16.9 Panama 9.5 10.7 10.0 10.6 –5.0 0.9 Venezuela 8.0 8.6 8.1 7.7 –1.2 11.7 Lower Middle Income Bolivia 9.5 7.9 7.9 6.3 20.3 25.4 Colombia 8.2 8.5 8.0 7.4 2.5 14.9 Dominican Republic 8.8 9.4 9.1 8.1 –3.3 16.0 Ecuador 9.2 9.8 8.5 8.4 8.2 16.7 El Salvador 6.7 7.2 6.2 5.4 8.1 33.3 Honduras 6.2 6.1 5.8 5.6 6.9 8.9 Jamaica 10.4 10.7 9.7 9.5 7.2 12.6 Paraguay 7.4 7.1 7.2 7.6 2.8 –6.6 Peru 10.9 9.3 9.7 9.1 12.4 2.2 Low Income Nicaragua 6.4 6.3 6.4 4.4 0.0 43.2 SOURCE: Behrman, Duryea, and Szekely (1999a)
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SCHOOLING 89 TABLE 3-10 Trends in Percentage Ever Attended School Beyond Secondary School, DHS Countries Weighted Averages % Change Most Recent Ages 25-29 Ages 35-39 Decade Region or Income Level Men Women Men Women Men Women Region Africa Eastern/Southern Africa 4.7 3.3 5.3 2.6 –13.2 21.6 Western/Middle Africa 10.5 5.2 11.9 5.4 –14.2 –4.4 Asia South-central/South-eastern Asia 19.9 10.9 14.8 7.0 25.8 36.1 Former Soviet Asia 17.1 14.8 21.0 17.0 –22.6 –14.9 Latin America and Caribbean Caribbean/Central America 9.3 8.1 8.4 7.0 9.0 13.2 South America 12.1 12.2 12.6 12.6 –4.1 –3.2 Middle East Western Asia/Northern Africa 15.3 11.1 13.3 7.3 13.1 34.1 Income Level Low 16.2 8.2 12.7 5.3 21.8 35.3 Lower middle 22.2 20.8 20.1 17.8 9.3 14.6 Upper middle 9.1 8.9 9.6 8.7 –5.6 2.0 TOTAL -- All DHS 16.2 9.7 13.2 7.1 18.3 27.3 NOTES: For source of regional and income groupings and population data for weighted averages, see Table 3-1. Further detail can be found in Appendix A
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90 GROWING UP GLOBAL Student Performance There are few comparable data on student performance in developing countries, whether measured by literacy rates or standardized tests. The best known data regularly published by UNESCO on literacy, which are based on self-reports, are now widely acknowledged by UNESCO and other United Nations agencies to be seriously flawed and are not presented here.14 In the discussion below, we present some very recent but incomplete data that begin to show what schooling participation may be yielding in terms of learning outcomes as measured by literacy or by the results of standardized texts in reading, mathematics, and science in the few developing countries that have participated in these cross-national testing exercises.
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SCHOOLING 91 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Grade Attained Pe rc en ta ge Rwanda Ethiopia Malawi Uganda Benin Mali Zambia FIGURE 3-3 Percentage of young women who can read a simple sentence by grade attained. SOURCE: Lloyd and Hewett (2004)
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92 GROWING UP GLOBAL Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001) .17 This involved the testing of 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and science literacy in 32 countries in 2000 (including two developing countries, Mexico and Brazil)
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SCHOOLING 93 TABLE 3-11 PISA Test Scores by Country PISA 2000-2001 Test Scores Region and Country Reading Math Science Developed Countries Japan 522 557 550 Canada 534 533 529 United States 504 493 499 France 505 517 500 Korea 525 547 552 Developing Countries Argentina 418 388 396 Chile 410 384 415 Brazil 396 334 375 Peru 327 292 333 Mexico 422 387 422 Thailand 431 432 436 Indonesia 371 367 393 OECD Average (including Mexico) 500 500 500 SOURCE: OECD and UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2003)
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94 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 3-12 Percentage of Students Reaching TIMSS 1999 International Benchmarks Country Lower Quartilea Medianb Japan 98 89 Netherlands 96 81 Canada 96 77 United States 88 61 Malaysia 94 69 Thailand 81 44 Cyprus 84 51 Jordan 62 32 Indonesia 52 22 Turkey 65 27 Iran 63 25 Chile 48 15 Tunisia 80 32 Philippines 31 8 South Africa 14 5 Morocco 27 5 aMedian benchmark: Student can apply basic mathematical knowledge in straightforward situation. bLower quarter benchmark: Students can do basic (add, subtract)
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SCHOOLING 95 ematics in the regional test. These differences in ranking between PISA and UNESCO, while partially explained by differences in approach, suggest caution in the interpretation of comparative test scores.
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96 GROWING UP GLOBAL the selectivity of the group. Those untested represent a much larger proportion of young people in developing than in developed countries, compromising the overall comparability of results for all young people (as opposed to only those in school)
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SCHOOLING 97 BOX 3-1 Typical Quotes from Focus Groups with Parents in Thailand (1991-1992) Knodel (1997)
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98 GROWING UP GLOBAL health, changes in family income, improvements in parents' schooling, and rapid urbanization. Family Size One of the interesting demographic paradoxes affecting many young people in the developing world today is that they have grown up during a period in which family size was falling but cohort size was increasing (Lam and Marteleto, 2005)
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SCHOOLING 99 parents to resource constraints brought on by larger families (Lloyd, 1994)
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100 GROWING UP GLOBAL Furthermore, the expected returns to investments in schooling are greater with longer expected lives over which to reap those returns (Lee and Schultz, 1982)
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SCHOOLING 101 Given steady improvements in schooling in most developing countries in recent decades, the parents of today's young people are on average considerably better educated than their own parents were. To illustrate this point, Figure 3-4 shows the large changes in parental schooling observed in Brazil.
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102 GROWING UP GLOBAL Parental Income or Wealth Parental income or wealth can be another important determinant of schooling outcomes of children. There is a large literature documenting a positive association in the cross-section between parental income or wealth and children's schooling outcomes (e.g., Barros and Lam, 1996; Behrman and Knowles, 1999; Brown and Park, 2002; Filmer and Pritchett, 1999)
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SCHOOLING 103 nity cost of schooling high. On balance, as Table 3-5 shows, attendance rates are consistently higher in urban than rural areas.
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104 GROWING UP GLOBAL pendent of individual schooling choices, such as Duflo's (2001) analysis of the impact of a school expansion program in Indonesia.
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SCHOOLING 105 In Brazil, where it is possible to estimate private rates of return to schooling for large annual cross-sections from the late 1970s to the present, overall rates of return have been relatively constant at levels that are quite high in comparison to high-income countries. Average rates of return are around 15 percent, with high returns at all levels of schooling with controls for family background variables (Lam and Schoeni, 1993)
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106 GROWING UP GLOBAL While many women who go to school never enter the labor market or only work part time or for a few years, nearly all women marry. Marriage is therefore another potential pathway for young women and their parents to realize private returns on investments in schooling.
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SCHOOLING 107 priorities and processes and, in countries reliant on the assistance of international donors, leading to the imposition of conditions on multilateral and bilateral schooling grants and loans. As a result, school systems are being increasingly evaluated in terms of their contribution to labor productivity (Stromquist and Monkman, 2000a)
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108 GROWING UP GLOBAL residents in developing countries lived within relatively easy reach of a formal primary school (either within the village or within a short walk) (Filmer, 2003; Filmer and Pritchett, 1999)
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SCHOOLING 109 and school-based tutoring and exam preparation classes that are advertised to reduce the chances of exam failure and subsequent grade repetition (Buchmann, 2002)
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110 GROWING UP GLOBAL structures (including devolution of responsibility for educational delivery to lower levels of government, to parent-teacher associations, and to the private sector) and to achieve greater financial accountability.
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SCHOOLING 111 recent years (UNESCO, 2002b) , this might suggest that per-pupil costs or investments incurred by the state are actually falling.
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112 GROWING UP GLOBAL quality, despite the fact that neither of these measures is independent of enrollment trends. The latest data from UNESCO (2004)
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SCHOOLING 113 that early learning is most effectively accomplished in a child's native tongue (UNICEF, 1999)
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114 GROWING UP GLOBAL In recent years, however, many schools have introduced new nonacademic elements to the curriculum, such as family life education or life skills, sports, and citizenship training, all of which have the potential to introduce more "modern" attitudes and behaviors. The impact of these new materials on the socialization of the young is very dependent on teacher training and motivation.
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SCHOOLING 115 BOX 3-2 The Treatment of Gender in Textbooks: The Case of Peru Changes in school textbooks are by no means uniform and, since they are based on country-level studies, are difficult to generalize. Nonetheless, Peru constitutes a good case to discuss because data are available that allow comparisons over time of textbook content in primary school.
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116 GROWING UP GLOBAL were related to the effects of adolescence on them; they become disturbed by their bodily changes, lose interest in school, become more interested in boys and their appearance, and suffer from mood swings. Attitudes are reflected in behavior when teachers actually treat boys and girls differently.
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SCHOOLING 117 BOX 3-3 Gender Differences in the Schooling Experiences of Adolescents in Rural Primary Schools in Kenya In a study designed to measure differential gender treatment in the school and classroom, Mensch and Lloyd (1998) combined school and classroom observations with interviews with students and teachers in a sample of 36 rural primary schools.
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118 GROWING UP GLOBAL THE IMPACT OF SCHOOL POLICIES AND PROGRAMS ON SCHOOLING OUTCOMES The provision of formal schooling for the young has traditionally been the business of the state in most societies, although in a number of cases there are also strong traditions of private, religious, or other types of formal schools.40 With the establishment of international norms relating to the goals of universal primary school completion and gender equity in access to all levels of schooling, schooling in developing countries has also become the business of the United Nations system, multilateral and bilateral donor agencies, and a host of international and local NGOs. Along with a succession of donor-led initiatives and local school reform efforts has been a growing body of research on policy and program factors contributing to positive educational outcomes for the young including school effectiveness studies as well as evaluations of specific supply- or demand-side interventions designed to promote attendance, retention, or improved academic performance in general or among particular disadvantaged groups.
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SCHOOLING 119 The good news is that the current research climate in the education field is changing fairly rapidly, and evaluations of school performance are one of the most fertile and innovative areas of research among those reviewed by the panel. Many of the studies cited below have been completed in the past few years, and we expect the field to continue to evolve rapidly.
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120 GROWING UP GLOBAL tions tend to focus on schooling outcomes, including enrollment, grade attainment, and academic performance, whose improvement is associated with successful transitions in one of three domains: (1) policies affecting demand, (2)
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SCHOOLING 121 TABLE 3-13 List of Studies of Program and Policy Impact by Type in Developing Country Settings 1. Prospective randomized experimental studies of specific interventions Demand: PROGRESA, Mexico (Behrman et al., 2002; Schultz, 2004)
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122 GROWING UP GLOBAL Policies and Programs Affecting Demand Governments can affect the demand for education by changing the costs or the benefits of attending school. Furthermore, regulations that restrict access to governmental schools because of such factors as age, parental status, ethnicity, race, religion, tribe, or marital status can raise the cost of education to particular subgroups in the population.
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SCHOOLING 123 In Kenya, where the rules governing the timing of entry are very flexible, children continue to enter the system until age 11 (Montgomery and Lloyd, 1999)
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124 GROWING UP GLOBAL many fewer students were giving cost as a reason for dropping out. Success has come at a price, however, as class sizes have shot up and failure rates have increased.
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SCHOOLING 125 mented by other program components designed to enhance school quality. A girl is eligible to receive the stipend if she maintains a minimum level of performance, has a 75 percent attendance record, and remains unmarried.
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126 GROWING UP GLOBAL BOX 3-4 PROGRESA: The Effect of School Subsidies for the Poor on Enrollment At its inception in 1997, Mexico's Programa Nacional de Educación, Salud y Alimentacíon (PROGRESA) was among the most comprehensive rural antipoverty and human resource investment programs ever implemented in the developing world.
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SCHOOLING 127 While this is a key finding, it should not overshadow the fact that PROGRESA had no measurable impact on regular school attendance or test scores of students in the short time frame allowed for impact evaluation (Behrman, Sengupta, and Todd, 2000; Schultz, 2000)
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128 GROWING UP GLOBAL outs. Indeed, the program is encouraging even to the younger children who are not yet eligible for the subsidies (Behrman, Sengupta, and Todd, 2002)
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SCHOOLING 129 In municipalities in which the number of applicants exceeded the funds available, scholarship recipients were randomly selected through a lottery. Taking advantage of the lottery feature as a natural experiment, Angrist et al.
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130 GROWING UP GLOBAL Policies and Programs Affecting School Access In many developing countries, major public works programs, such as school building, occurred at an early stage of economic development during the 1960s and 1970s. Today, primary school access exists for the majority in most countries, although often in crowded conditions, but difficult pockets remain in more remote rural areas or urban slums or squatter settlements.
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SCHOOLING 131 out on school, has not been properly evaluated (Ahmed, Chabbott, and Pande, 1994)
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132 GROWING UP GLOBAL rural areas. Communities targeted for the new schools had high rates of malnutrition and grade repetition rates.
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SCHOOLING 133 Restrictions on Secondary School Access In most public school systems, many fewer students can be accommodated in secondary than in primary school given a relative scarcity of school places at the secondary level. Knight and Sabot (1990)
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134 GROWING UP GLOBAL samples of school attendees, which may make interpretation difficult.50 The discussion of results is organized according to the major categories of school quality introduced previously but includes as well a few system-wide interventions designed to improve quality more holistically, either through promoting competition on one hand or providing an intensive infusion of resources on the other. Time to learn, usually translated into the length of the school day, is less variable across schools in a system but is highly variable across countries.
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SCHOOLING 135 In Pakistan, where girls' primary schools are staffed by female teachers, teacher absenteeism can be a particular problem in rural areas in which many teachers are not local residents. In a recent study in rural Punjab and the North West Frontier Province, Lloyd et al., (2005)
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136 GROWING UP GLOBAL no freedom to move out of the community in search of better schools.53 Case and Deaton found that decreasing the student-teacher ratio from 40 to 20 (the approximate means in black and white schools, respectively) would result in an increase in grade attainment by 1.5 to 2.5 years and a significant increase in students' reading test scores as well (conditional on years of school attendance)
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SCHOOLING 137 intervention (Behrman, Sengupta, and Todd, 2002)
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138 GROWING UP GLOBAL only country that has shifted the language of instruction away from the language of former colonial powers (e.g., Swahili in Tanzania and Urdu in Pakistan) , but the consequences of these changes are not known.
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SCHOOLING 139 incentives if linked to improvements in students' test scores (Glewwe, Llias, and Kremer, 2003)
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140 GROWING UP GLOBAL other categorizations may be important and in some cases probably more important than gender differences. As noted above, for example, schooling differentials by income or wealth class tend to be larger than those for gender holding income or wealth constant both across countries and within countries.
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SCHOOLING 141 fore able to screen out some of the weaker or more difficult students (Cox and Lemaitre, 1999; Mizala and Romaguera, 2000)
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142 GROWING UP GLOBAL many questions. Natural experiments, such as the change of language of instruction in Morocco and the school building program in Indonesia, also provide a promising route for policy insight but results are less timely as sufficient time has to elapse after the change in policy to allow for an assessment of impact.
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SCHOOLING 143 gender such that girls are differentially disadvantaged among the poor and among rural residents, particularly in later adolescence. Trends in grade attainment tell only part of the story; limited data from standardized test scores provide cause for serious concern.
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144 GROWING UP GLOBAL unclear. The rise in private schooling and the increasing share of costs borne by parents could be a response to an inadequate supply of school places relative to demand or to deteriorating quality in the public sector; it could also be a reflection of rising expectations in relation to existing school quality.
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SCHOOLING 145 to ensure adequate learning outcomes at the primary level as well as to create a stronger base for further expansions in enrollment at the secondary level. The panel sees successful transitions to adulthood as requiring, at a minimum, that young people receive respectful and equitable treatment in the classroom regardless of gender, class, race, ethnicity, or religion and leave school literate in a commonly spoken language and endowed with skills for lifelong learning.
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146 GROWING UP GLOBAL the delivery of education services is essential if girls are to reach their full potential as adults. Policies outside the education sector are also critical to the achievement of education goals.
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SCHOOLING 147 Important research questions remain unanswered: • What explains the rapid rise in girls' schooling? Why are rates of girls' schooling rising more rapidly than those of boys?
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148 A PP E N D IX T A B L E 3 -1 P er ce nt ag e C ur re nt ly A tt en di ng S ch oo l, D H S C ou nt ri es M al e (a ge )
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149 K en ya 19 98 93 .2 61 .6 11 .8 90 .7 50 .1 5.
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150 A PP E N D IX T A B L E 3 -2 P er ce nt ag e C ur re nt ly A tt en di ng S ch oo l, W ea lt hi es t 20 o f H ou se ho ld s, D H S C ou nt ri es M al e (a ge )
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151 Jo rd an 19 97 98 .3 82 .3 37 .7 99 .1 84 .4 30 .5 K az ak hi st an 19 99 99 .8 85 .7 40 .2 99 .6 89 .6 36 .3 K en ya 19 98 95 .2 58 .9 11 .4 88 .6 38 .6 8.
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From page 152... ...
152 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 3-3 Index of Inequality in School Attendance by Wealth, DHS Countries, High Versus Low Wealth Boys Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 Survey SES SES Inequality SES SES Inequality Country Date High Low Index High Low Index Armenia 2000 99.5 96.2 3.3 80.6 50.4 37.5 Bangladesh 1999-2000 80.4 64.6 19.6 64.2 27.8 56.8 Benin 1996 85.6 40.1 53.2 58.2 17.3 70.3 Bolivia 1998 99.3 89.3 10.0 91.0 47.7 47.5 Brazil 1996 98.4 89.5 9.0 74.6 50.0 33.0 Burkina Faso 1998-1999 60.1 19.6 67.4 41.0 3.8 90.8 Cameroon 1998 95.0 70.4 25.9 69.0 37.4 45.9 Central African Republic 1994-1995 86.6 56.4 34.9 70.0 29.1 58.5 Chad 1996-1997 73.3 36.6 50.1 62.5 31.6 49.4 Colombia 2000 96.5 79.5 17.6 63.8 38.1 40.3 Comoros 1996 87.5 60.3 31.1 72.2 50.4 30.1 Côte d'Ivoire 1998-1999 88.7 55.1 37.9 62.3 17.9 71.3 Dominican Republic 1996 98.1 89.4 8.9 79.0 58.0 26.6 Egypt 2000 96.1 83.6 13.0 75.1 51.0 32.1 Ethiopia 1999 81.8 34.1 58.3 67.8 30.7 54.7 Ghana 1998-1999 95.7 73.5 23.1 60.9 43.8 28.1 Guatemala 1998-1999 98.3 72.3 26.4 77.0 20.2 73.7 Guinea 1999 61.3 23.9 61.0 54.9 13.0 76.4 Haiti 1994-1995 94.5 63.9 32.4 90.8 59.3 34.7 Indonesia 1997 96.5 82.2 14.8 67.6 32.9 51.3 Jordan 1997 98.3 95.6 2.7 82.3 58.2 29.3 Kazakhistan 1999 99.8 97.8 2.0 85.7 74.4 13.2 Kenya 1998 95.2 92.4 2.9 58.9 61.8 –4.9
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From page 153... ...
SCHOOLING 153 Girls Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 SES SES Inequality SES SES Inequality High Low Index High Low Index 98.7 98.4 0.4 78.5 55.4 29.4 73.1 70.9 3.0 52.0 20.7 60.2 53.5 13.0 75.7 29.9 2.8 90.8 94.4 82.6 12.5 79.0 32.9 58.3 97.5 90.4 7.3 76.0 53.0 30.3 53.8 9.3 82.6 27.7 0.8 97.2 92.2 60.2 34.6 59.8 16.2 72.9 81.2 26.6 67.2 46.7 5.9 87.3 58.7 16.4 72.0 33.2 4.8 85.5 94.7 85.1 10.2 60.9 38.2 37.2 76.7 41.1 46.5 72.2 26.7 63.0 62.5 32.7 47.7 37.8 3.9 89.7 97.2 92.2 5.1 75.3 47.9 36.4 94.0 69.7 25.8 67.6 34.4 49.1 69.2 22.1 68.0 52.3 13.6 73.9 89.6 69.2 22.7 43.9 31.1 29.0 92.8 61.6 33.6 67.7 10.4 84.6 51.0 10.2 80.0 30.3 1.6 94.8 86.1 63.7 26.0 81.8 43.1 47.3 95.8 82.6 13.8 62.2 27.0 56.7 99.1 94.6 4.6 84.4 56.1 33.6 99.6 98.3 1.3 89.6 69.8 22.1 88.6 92.0 –3.9 38.6 57.3 –48.6 Continued
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From page 154... ...
154 GROWING UP GLOBAL Kyrgyz Republic 1997 98.3 95.8 2.5 71.3 44.6 37.5 Madagascar 1997 89.6 48.6 45.8 52.6 9.7 81.5 Malawi 2000 90.4 80.0 11.4 75.4 60.0 20.5 Mali 2001 73.3 39.0 46.8 59.2 17.1 71.1 Morocco 1992 92.8 34.1 63.3 65.2 11.1 83.0 Mozambique 1997 80.5 64.4 20.0 59.9 40.6 32.3 Namibia 1992 98.4 89.9 8.7 80.3 81.2 –1.2 Nepal 2001 91.3 76.5 16.3 64.4 40.4 37.3 Nicaragua 1997 91.9 63.3 31.1 76.5 20.9 72.6 Niger 1998 66.9 18.5 72.4 35.2 3.0 91.4 Nigeria 1999 93.0 51.4 44.7 77.9 40.2 48.4 Pakistan 1990-1991 85.8 55.7 35.1 65.2 29.3 55.1 Peru 2000 98.6 93.1 5.5 73.3 54.7 25.3 Philippines 1998 96.5 80.2 16.9 78.2 42.8 45.3 Rwanda 2000 40.7 45.4 –11.7 15.1 11.2 26.2 Senegal 1992-1993 75.9 20.9 72.5 54.5 10.8 80.2 South Africa 1998-2000 98.5 94.6 4.0 77.5 86.1 –11.0 Togo 1998 95.6 76.6 19.9 77.9 55.9 28.2 Turkey 1998 90.6 73.3 19.1 43.2 28.8 33.4 Uganda 2000-2001 94.3 89.2 5.3 68.8 63.6 7.6 United Republic of Tanzania 1999 85.7 54.8 36.0 29.8 34.7 –16.3 Uzbekistan 1996 97.8 98.6 –0.8 48.0 39.7 17.4 Vietnam 1997 97.4 85.3 12.5 65.9 31.9 51.6 Zambia 1996-1997 96.2 65.6 31.8 73.2 44.0 39.8 Zimbabwe 1999 99.2 92.0 7.3 65.9 57.5 12.8 APPENDIX TABLE 3-3 Continued Boys Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 Survey SES SES Inequality SES SES Inequality Country Date High Low Index High Low Index
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From page 155... ...
SCHOOLING 155 98.4 97.4 1.0 73.4 40.3 45.0 86.1 43.4 49.6 45.7 3.5 92.4 88.4 81.2 8.1 61.0 37.3 38.8 57.1 23.0 59.6 34.1 5.6 83.7 77.9 10.7 86.3 56.0 1.7 97.0 78.5 45.3 42.3 34.9 8.2 76.6 94.5 94.5 0.0 65.5 73.4 –12.0 85.7 50.0 41.6 53.0 17.2 67.5 96.2 68.2 29.1 72.7 22.5 69.0 55.9 9.8 82.4 23.7 0.7 97.1 92.9 43.8 52.8 71.1 27.1 62.0 84.9 21.3 74.8 51.0 2.9 94.4 98.6 86.9 11.9 69.1 42.5 38.4 95.3 89.1 6.5 64.9 51.1 21.2 42.2 43.3 –2.6 15.0 6.5 56.8 65.3 11.7 82.1 29.5 2.0 93.3 99.2 96.3 3.0 77.6 78.9 –1.7 74.2 55.0 25.9 50.6 25.0 50.7 87.6 46.6 46.8 52.1 14.6 71.9 90.5 86.6 4.3 54.4 37.1 31.7 91.6 59.3 35.2 30.1 19.7 34.4 98.5 98.5 0.0 45.1 31.5 30.2 96.4 78.1 18.9 66.0 18.5 71.9 91.9 62.9 31.6 55.5 21.3 61.7 95.9 90.8 5.3 46.6 43.9 5.7 Girls Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 SES SES Inequality SES SES Inequality High Low Index High Low Index
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From page 156... ...
156 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 3-4 Index of Inequality in School Attendance by Urban-Rural Residence, DHS Countries Boys Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 Survey Inequality Inequality Country Date Urban Rural Index Urban Rural Index Armenia 2000 98.4 96.4 2.0 65.9 53.5 18.9 Bangladesh 1999-2000 70.4 73.3 –4.1 50.7 44.7 11.9 Benin 1996 74.2 50.4 32.1 44.2 28.9 34.7 Bolivia 1998 96.3 90.0 6.5 82.5 50.0 39.4 Brazil 1996 95.2 89.6 5.9 66.5 44.8 32.5 Burkina Faso 1998-1999 73.7 23.8 67.7 50.2 6.1 87.8 Cameroon 1998 89.5 78.2 12.6 63.2 45.1 28.7 Central African Republic 1994-1995 83.6 63.9 23.6 60.1 30.5 49.3 Chad 1996-1997 67.8 44.5 34.3 62.1 37.0 40.3 Colombia 2000 92.9 77.8 16.2 59.1 35.9 39.3 Comoros 1996 78.9 69.5 12.0 70.0 56.5 19.3 Côte d'Ivoire 1998-1999 75.0 61.9 17.5 48.4 20.0 58.7 Dominican Republic 1996 94.8 92.1 2.8 72.7 60.1 17.4 Egypt 2000 89.3 87.9 1.5 68.0 57.2 16.0 Ethiopia 1999 85.0 40.0 52.9 75.8 35.1 53.7 Ghana 1998-1999 91.1 78.1 14.2 55.1 46.8 15.0 Guatemala 1998-1999 91.7 78.0 15.0 58.1 25.4 56.3 Guinea 1999 61.4 28.6 53.5 57.1 18.5 67.6 Haiti 1994-1995 91.6 73.7 19.6 85.9 68.0 20.8 Indonesia 1997 93.9 86.6 7.8 62.2 38.5 38.0 Jordan 1997 96.4 98.1 –1.8 66.8 66.0 1.2 Kazakhistan 1999 99.8 98.1 1.7 85.7 73.7 13.9 Kenya 1998 92.6 93.3 –0.7 55.7 62.7 –12.6
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From page 157... ...
SCHOOLING 157 Continued Girls Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 Inequality Inequality Urban Rural Index Urban Rural Index 99.5 98.6 1.0 73.4 54.9 25.2 70.4 77.9 –10.6 39.4 32.9 16.7 45.3 21.5 52.5 24.8 8.2 67.0 95.6 81.7 14.6 75.0 32.4 56.9 95.7 88.5 7.5 68.0 49.0 27.9 62.5 14.0 77.6 34.1 1.4 95.8 87.4 70.7 19.0 53.3 25.1 52.9 69.8 33.0 52.7 33.3 7.6 77.2 52.3 22.9 56.3 31.8 6.4 79.9 93.9 81.9 12.8 57.0 35.0 38.5 67.3 56.3 16.3 63.4 40.5 36.2 53.7 41.8 22.1 28.3 7.3 74.4 96.2 93.6 2.7 69.2 52.6 24.0 92.0 75.2 18.3 65.1 40.1 38.5 78.4 28.4 63.8 58.8 17.1 70.9 86.2 76.9 10.8 41.1 35.6 13.5 81.0 70.0 13.6 46.4 25.9 44.1 48.3 14.2 70.6 26.9 4.6 83.0 83.4 75.2 9.9 71.9 58.6 18.5 93.1 86.3 7.3 60.1 33.5 44.2 96.9 95.1 1.8 72.1 65.1 9.7 99.6 98.7 0.9 80.3 73.9 8.0 86.5 91.4 –5.6 29.6 55.6 –88.3
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From page 158... ...
158 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 3-4 Continued Boys Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 Survey Inequality Inequality Country Date Urban Rural Index Urban Rural Index Kyrgyz Republic 1997 98.5 96.9 1.6 60.7 47.8 21.3 Madagascar 1997 78.1 53.3 31.8 45.6 12.8 71.9 Malawi 2000 94.8 82.1 13.4 72.7 62.8 13.7 Mali 2001 71.8 37.6 47.6 58.2 16.5 71.7 Morocco 1992 84.6 42.9 49.3 53.6 16.3 69.6 Mozambique 1997 84.5 67.7 19.9 55.7 40.8 26.8 Namibia 1992 96.4 90.1 6.5 78.2 76.2 2.6 Nepal 2001 90.4 82.7 8.5 61.4 49.7 19.1 Nicaragua 1997 86.0 66.4 22.8 59.3 25.0 57.8 Niger 1998 65.7 23.0 64.9 37.3 3.9 89.5 Nigeria 1999 82.2 71.2 13.3 72.6 56.2 22.6 Pakistan 1990-1991 79.2 64.9 18.0 48.9 42.0 14.0 Peru 2000 97.0 93.3 3.8 66.7 55.4 16.9 Philippines 1998 92.4 83.9 9.2 65.6 51.4 21.6 Rwanda 2000 46.7 41.0 12.2 17.6 11.3 35.4 Senegal 1992-1993 69.5 27.0 61.2 41.3 13.7 66.9 South Africa 1998-2000 97.9 95.5 2.5 82.8 86.8 –4.9 Togo 1998 94.2 80.9 14.1 75.3 61.0 19.0 Turkey 1998 86.7 73.4 15.4 41.5 27.9 32.9 Uganda 2000-2001 89.7 91.5 –1.9 65.6 66.2 –0.9 United Republic of Tanzania 1999 81.2 66.5 18.1 26.8 31.2 –16.7 Uzbekistan 1996 97.5 98.9 –1.5 42.1 44.5 –5.9 Vietnam 1997 93.0 90.0 3.3 54.1 41.5 23.2 Zambia 1996-1997 87.0 69.7 19.9 60.8 46.1 24.2 Zimbabwe 1999 97.4 91.9 5.6 59.3 57.6 2.8
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From page 159... ...
SCHOOLING 159 Girls Ages 10-14 Ages 15-19 Inequality Inequality Urban Rural Index Urban Rural Index 99.0 97.1 1.8 67.7 47.7 29.5 76.5 51.1 33.2 37.5 8.0 78.7 86.5 84.3 2.5 57.5 42.0 27.0 54.0 24.0 55.6 33.2 5.4 83.8 73.4 19.1 74.0 46.6 4.8 89.7 75.6 53.3 29.5 33.3 11.1 66.6 95.8 92.6 3.4 61.8 72.2 –16.9 81.4 63.2 22.4 54.8 27.7 49.5 89.9 69.9 22.2 60.3 26.2 56.6 55.9 11.5 79.4 25.3 0.8 96.9 82.6 64.3 22.2 59.9 45.0 24.8 68.4 33.1 51.7 41.1 10.0 75.7 95.8 87.3 8.9 65.9 43.3 34.3 93.9 91.6 2.4 65.0 61.4 5.5 46.6 41.8 10.3 16.7 6.8 59.1 54.8 16.9 69.2 22.5 2.3 89.7 98.4 96.8 1.6 79.4 79.4 0.0 74.5 61.5 17.5 45.0 31.2 30.6 72.6 47.1 35.1 34.4 13.9 59.5 87.5 90.5 –3.4 48.7 44.9 7.8 76.6 67.1 12.4 27.6 25.9 6.0 99.4 98.8 0.6 44.3 38.1 14.2 94.0 84.3 10.3 59.8 28.4 52.5 86.2 67.1 22.2 43.5 24.6 43.6 92.3 91.6 0.8 41.7 43.3 –3.9
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From page 160... ...
160 A PP E N D IX T A B L E 3 -5 P er ce nt ag e E ve r A tt en de d Sc ho ol , D H S C ou nt ri es M al e (a ge )
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From page 161... ...
161 Jo rd an 19 97 99 .4 97 .6 94 .7 99 .2 98 .5 94 .2 K az ak hs ta n 19 99 99 .6 99 .5 99 .6 99 .6 99 .6 99 .9 K en ya 19 98 96 .5 97 .3 95 .8 95 .0 94 .7 91 .4 K yr gy z R ep ub li c 19 97 99 .4 99 .2 99 .5 99 .3 99 .8 99 .4 M ad ag as ca r 19 97 77 .6 81 .6 82 .0 77 .7 81 .4 78 .7 M al aw i 20 00 92 .6 90 .6 83 .4 93 .2 81 .2 65 .5 M al i 20 01 50 .7 34 .2 33 .0 36 .3 20 .0 18 .8 M or oc co 19 92 75 .4 74 .3 60 .0 54 .1 45 .5 30 .6 M oz am bi qu e 19 97 84 .5 81 .6 83 .0 70 .8 58 .7 64 .6 N am ib ia 19 92 95 .1 88 .4 78 .4 96 .2 92 .7 82 .0 N ep al 20 01 89 .6 83 .8 66 .4 71 .8 44 .4 24 .6 N ic ar ag ua 19 97 88 .8 85 .2 85 .0 91 .3 87 .8 85 .2 N ig er 19 98 40 .9 39 .0 27 .0 27 .4 19 .9 12 .3 N ig er ia 19 99 82 .7 83 .0 76 .3 79 .2 69 .6 57 .9 Pa ki st an 19 90 -1 99 1 76 .2 65 .9 54 .3 51 .3 36 .1 24 .1 Pe ru 20 00 99 .7 99 .1 98 .6 99 .1 97 .5 94 .3 Ph il ip pi ne s 19 98 98 .4 98 .7 98 .7 98 .9 98 .7 98 .4 R w an da 20 00 87 .7 83 .2 70 .1 87 .9 81 .9 65 .1 Se ne ga l 19 92 -1 99 3 52 .0 50 .4 38 .2 40 .2 32 .8 24 .2 So ut h A fr ic a 19 98 -2 00 0 97 .9 97 .6 95 .3 98 .8 98 .0 92 .4 T og o 19 98 88 .9 85 .1 76 .9 72 .3 58 .8 46 .6 T ur ke y 19 98 97 .0 98 .5 96 .5 92 .7 89 .8 84 .1 U ga nd a 20 00 -2 00 1 96 .4 92 .5 90 .7 95 .4 84 .0 73 .9 U ni te d R ep ub li c of T an za ni a 19 99 75 .3 88 .7 90 .7 74 .3 82 .9 78 .5 U zb ek is ta n 19 96 99 .5 99 .9 99 .7 10 0.
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From page 162... ...
162 A PP E N D IX T A B L E 3 -6 P er ce nt ag e C om pl et in g Fo ur o r M or e Y ea rs o f Sc ho ol in g, D H S C ou nt ri es M al e (a ge )
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From page 163... ...
163 Jo rd an 19 97 98 .0 94 .8 92 .3 97 .5 95 .0 86 .4 K az ak hs ta n 19 99 98 .9 99 .1 99 .8 99 .5 99 .8 99 .7 K en ya 19 98 90 .6 93 .0 90 .9 90 .6 88 .5 72 .3 K yr gy z R ep ub li c 19 97 99 .0 99 .4 99 .8 99 .3 99 .4 98 .8 M ad ag as ca r 19 97 41 .3 57 .5 55 .1 43 .1 55 .5 42 .0 M al aw i 20 00 71 .8 69 .6 66 .4 71 .5 48 .0 38 .2 M al i 20 01 35 .3 25 .0 25 .3 23 .0 14 .0 14 .9 M or oc co 19 92 69 .0 56 .5 50 .3 44 .5 32 .3 22 .2 M oz am bi qu e 19 97 56 .2 49 .8 52 .4 34 .1 30 .0 17 .9 N am ib ia 19 92 70 .1 74 .2 69 .6 82 .1 78 .9 65 .0 N ep al 20 01 74 .2 64 .2 47 .1 51 .2 25 .0 8.
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From page 164... ...
164 A PP E N D IX T A B L E 3 -7 M ea n G ra de s A tt ai ne d, D H S C ou nt ri es N um be r of M al e (a ge )
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From page 165... ...
165 K yr gy z R ep ub li c/ K yr gy zs ta n 7 4 19 97 10 .4 10 .9 11 .1 10 .7 10 .9 10 .9 M ad ag as ca r 6 5 19 97 3.
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From page 166... ...
166 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 3-8 Percentage Ever Attended School Beyond Secondary School, DHS Countries Male (age) Female (age)
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From page 167... ...
SCHOOLING 167 Kyrgyz Republic 1997 11.5 20.7 17.0 18.2 Madagascar 1997 2.6 6.2 1.8 2.1 Malawi 2000 0.7 1.1 0.3 0.1 Mali 2001 4.3 2.7 1.2 0.8 Morocco 1992 10.2 5.2 3.9 1.7 Mozambique 1997 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 Namibia 1992 4.3 6.7 3.2 2.9 Nepal 2001 12.4 7.9 2.6 0.8 Nicaragua 1997 8.1 13.1 9.5 8.6 Niger 1998 2.0 2.3 0.3 0.5 Nigeria 1999 16.4 19.3 8.9 9.9 Pakistan 1990-1991 6.4 5.2 2.2 1.6 Peru 2000 30.5 27.9 29.2 22.8 Philippines 1998 33.5 30.3 36.1 31.8 Rwanda 2000 1.3 2.1 0.7 0.2 Senegal 1992-1993 3.4 7.6 1.2 0.7 South Africa 1998-2000 11.1 10.5 11.2 8.5 Togo 1998 4.3 5.2 1.2 0.7 Turkey 1998 13.3 10.7 10.6 5.3 Uganda 2000-2001 8.3 9.5 5.0 4.6 United Republic of Tanzania 1999 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.1 Uzbekistan 1996 19.1 22.8 11.5 13.6 Vietnam 1997 1.3 2.2 1.3 3.1 Zambia 1996-1997 5.5 10.7 4.0 5.1 Zimbabwe 1999 7.1 10.4 4.5 3.9 APPENDIX TABLE 3-8 Continued Male (age) Female (age)
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