The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries Selected Studies (2005) / Chapter Skim
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6 Marriage Patterns in Rural India: Influence of Sociocultural Context--Shireen J. Jejeebhoy and Shiva S. Halli
6 Marriage Patterns in Rural India: Influence of Sociocultural Context--Shireen J. Jejeebhoy and Shiva S. Halli
Pages 172-199
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From page 172... ...
Also poorly understood is the extent to which changes in these patterns are conditioned by sociocultural factors such as region and religion and their association with female autonomy. A unique data set provides an opportunity to explore marriage patterns and differences among successive cross-sections of Hindu and Muslim women who were married in the roughly 25 years from 1968 to 1993 in two socioculturally heterogeneous settings, namely rural areas of Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
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From page 173... ...
, in Tamil Nadu, women themselves appear to have more control over their dowries. Unlike women in the north who are traditionally per
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From page 174... ...
economic support to their parents. This chapter draws on data from a community-based survey on women's autonomy in two culturally distinct sites: Uttar Pradesh in the north, in which the situation of women is especially poor, and Tamil Nadu in the south, where gender relations are somewhat more balanced, and women are relatively better off.
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From page 175... ...
Parallel questions were posed to women and their husbands concerning women's autonomy within the home, and gender norms and expectations Uttar Pradesh in north India and Tamil Nadu in south India were selected deliberately to represent a range of gender and sociocultural conditions. Within each state, similarly, two districts were purposively selected (on the basis of an index of development, measured from indicators such as income, percentage of roads surfaced, and other economic criteria)
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From page 176... ...
As a result, a total of eight communities are covered: four geographical sites, and within each site, two distinct religious groups, Hindus and Muslims. A total of 1,842 women constitute the sample: 859 from Uttar Pradesh and 983 from Tamil Nadu.
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From page 177... ...
In general, Hindu women from Tamil Nadu, irrespective of marital duration, are most likely to have worked for wages both before marriage and as newlyweds. Also notable among them is that the more recently married cohort is somewhat more likely than the cohort married 11 or more years prior to the survey to have worked before marriage.
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From page 178... ...
JEJEEBHOY AND SHIVA S HALLI TABLE 6-1 Profile of Women by Duration of Marriage, Women Married 0-10 and 11 or More Years, Once-Married Women Ages 19-39, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Muslim Hindu 0-10 11+ 0-10 11+ Number 149 221 145 259 Land Ownership Status Any land 30.9 33.5 77.2 72.2 6+ acres 2.7 3.6 16.6 13.9 Household Economic Status Mean per capita annual income (Rs)
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From page 179... ...
Available data enable us to piece together a substantial profile of marriage-related decision making, the extent of arranged marriage and premarital acquaintance between spouses, postmarital residence patterns and extent of endogamy, spousal age and educational disparities, and the size and content of dowry and the extent of female control of its disbursal. Findings suggest that marriage patterns are by and large stable over time, but that practices are far less alienating or likely to limit exercise of autonomy among south Indian women, irrespective of age or religion, than among northern women.
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From page 180... ...
For example, among Hindu and Muslim women from Tamil Nadu, proportions reporting a say in marriage decisions increased from 37 and 29 percent, respectively, among the longer married cohort to 45 and 35 percent, respectively, among the recently married ones. In contrast, among women from Uttar Pradesh, although increases are reported by both Muslim and Hindu women, no more than a handful of even the recently married -- about one in six in both groups -- had any say or veto powers in this decision.
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From page 181... ...
. In the south, in contrast, both Hindu and Muslim women enjoy less alienating marriage ties.
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From page 182... ...
JEJEEBHOY AND SHIVA S HALLI TABLE 6-3 Marriage Practices by Duration of Marriage, Women Married 0-10 and 11 or More Years, Once-Married Women Ages 19-39, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Muslim Hindu 0-10 11+ 0-10 11+ Number 149 221 145 259 Autonomy in marriage decisions: % had say in 14.8 10.0 15.9 6.6 marriage decision Age difference with husband (mean)
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From page 183... ...
Spousal Imbalances in Age and Education: Extent of Polygamy It is hypothesized that characteristics of the husband such as his age and education and particularly wide spousal age and educational disparities can further limit the autonomy of young married women. Spousal age differences are, in general, considerably wider in Tamil Nadu than in Uttar Pradesh, and these disparities persist even among younger cohorts.
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From page 184... ...
For example, in Uttar Pradesh, among the cohort married 11 or more years prior to the survey, 54 percent of Muslim women and 26 percent of Hindu women reported educational levels that equalled or exceeded those of their husbands; this proportion falls to 42 percent and 21 percent, respectively, among the recently married cohort. In Tamil Nadu in contrast, the proportion reporting equal or better education levels increased significantly for both Hindus and Muslims: from 48 percent to 56 percent among Hindus and from 41 percent to 49 percent among Muslims.
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From page 185... ...
Gold and jewelry were the dominant form of dowry among Tamilian women, whereas the focus in Uttar Pradesh was on consumer goods. To explore the extent to which dowry patterns have changed over time, Table 6-4 presents dowry transfers reported by successive marriage cohorts of women married 11 or more years and 0 to 2Prominent caste, Coimbatore site.
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From page 186... ...
JEJEEBHOY AND SHIVA S HALLI TABLE 6-4 Dowry Practices by Duration of Marriage, Women Married 0-10 and 11 or More Years, Once-Married Women Ages 19-39, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Muslim Hindu 0-10 11+ 0-10 11+ Number 149 221 145 259 Dowry Amount (equivalent Rs)
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From page 187... ...
Our data suggest that the overwhelming majority of women in Tamil Nadu (86 to 90 percent among Muslims and 90 to 93 percent among Hindus) report that they had some say in how these items were used, and between half and two-thirds reported that they had the major control over them.
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From page 188... ...
In Uttar Pradesh, for example, half or fewer women report having any say in the use of these valuables, and far fewer than one third report the major say. In Uttar Pradesh, moreover, there are signs that the more recently married cohort of women exert considerably greater control over their dowries than do women married 11 or more years; in Tamil Nadu, women in the recently married cohort have about as much control over these valuables as does the cohort married 11 or more years.
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From page 189... ...
To address the limitation associated with the lack of corresponding data on unmarried women, we restrict our multivariate analyses of factors influencing marital age to women ages 19 and above, among whom the overwhelming percentage (more than 95 percent) have made the transition into marriage.
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From page 190... ...
JEJEEBHOY AND SHIVA S HALLI TABLE 6-5 Correlates of Marriage Age Among Women Ages 19-39, Married 0-10 and 11+ Years, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu: OLS Regression Coefficients, by Site Total Married Married 0-10 Years 11+ Years INDIVIDUAL LEVEL Education Primary 0.986c 1.088c Secondary 2.585c 2.723c Economic activity for wages before marriage 0.222 0.015 Participation in marriage decisions 0.008 0.218 Marriage Practice and Partner Level Spousal age difference >5 years 0.469b 0.398b Spousal educational difference >5 classes 0.235 0.230 Endogamy: resides in natal village or vicinity 0.099 0.274 Kin marriage: married to relative 0.452b 0.154 Dowry payments >Rs 50,000 0.008 0.248 NATAL FAMILY LEVEL Father's Education Level Primary 0.310a 0.138 Secondary 0.048 0.266 Sociocultural Context Uttar Pradesh Hindu 0.892c 2.017c Tamil Nadu Muslim 1.161c 1.481c Tamil Nadu Hindu 2.442c 2.338c Constant 16.244c 14.461c R squared 0.377 0.426 Number 731 984 aEquals .000.
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From page 191... ...
Few marriage practice and partner-level factors are uniformly significant. For example, recently married women with considerably better educated husbands are significantly more likely to delay marriage in Tamil
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From page 192... ...
, there is evidence that large dowry payments tended to delay marriage. Among natal family factors, there is evidence that natal family socioeconomic status, as measured by father's education, does influence marriage age, but this effect is statistically significant only in Tamil Nadu.
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From page 193... ...
Kin marriages, particularly in Tamil Nadu where they are more prevalent, and notably among the recent cohort, are associated with lower dowry payments. As far as natal family socioeconomic status is concerned, it is clear that father's education -- and particularly a secondary school education -- pow
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From page 194... ...
Among Women Ages 19-39, Married 0-10 and 11+ Years, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu: Odds Ratios Total Married Married 0-10 Years 11+ Years INDIVIDUAL LEVEL Education None 1.000 1.000 Primary 3.536c 2.800c Secondary 8.986c 6.235c Economic Activity for Wages Before Marriage No 1.000 1.000 Yes 0.397c 0.408c Participation in Marriage Decisions No 1.000 1.000 Yes 0.949 0.834 Marriage Practice and Partner Level Spousal age difference 5 years 1.000 1.000 Spousal age difference > 5 years 0.945 1.041 Spousal educational difference 5 classes 1.000 1.000 Spousal educational difference > 5 classes 1.511a 1.971c Exogamy: does not reside in natal village or vicinity 1.000 1.000 Endogamy: resides in natal village or vicinity 1.264 0.578b Not married to relative 1.000 1.000 Kin marriage: married to relative 0.512b 0.668a NATAL FAMILY LEVEL Father's Education Level None 1.000 1.000 Primary 1.301 1.494b Secondary 3.456c 1.596a Sociocultural Context Uttar Pradesh Muslim 1.000 1.000 Uttar Pradesh Hindu 0.954 1.421 Tamil Nadu Muslim 7.874c 9.711c Tamil Nadu Hindu 4.432c 3.329c Pseudo R Squared 0.26 0.21 Number 731 984 aEquals .000. bEquals .001-.05.
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From page 195... ...
MARRIAGE PATTERNS IN RURAL INDIA 195 Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu Married Married Married Married 0-10 Years 11+ Years 0-10 Years 11+ Years 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 2.515a 1.832c 4.047c 2.370c 5.644c 5.584c 12.669c 7.177c 0.371c 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.738a 0.420 0.376c 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.029 0.830 0.843 0.812 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.287 1.065 0.737 1.003 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.452 2.638b 1.451 1.606a 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.342 1.589 1.384 0.484b 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 2.442a 1.314 0.357c 0.599b 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.322 3.473c 1.268 0.933 3.307b 2.051b 3.884b 1.156 1.000 1.000 2.005 1.995b 1.000 1.000 0.541b 0.305c 0.21 0.182 0.271 0.192 294 480 437 504
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From page 196... ...
In Tamil Nadu, in contrast, Muslim women are more likely to report large dowries, though there is some indication that differences may be narrowing among the recent cohort. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The objective of this chapter was to explore marriage patterns and changes in marriage patterns among successive cohorts of women in rural Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, two culturally distinct social systems.
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From page 197... ...
In contrast, few other factors are uniformly significant: Only among the cohort married 11 years or longer -- but not the recently married cohort -- is there evidence that large dowry payments may have resulted in delaying marriage, and only in Tamil Nadu is there evidence that natal family socioeconomic status has a significant influence on delaying marriage age. Fourth, in contrast, findings suggest considerable heterogeneity in factors influencing dowry payments in the two settings.
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From page 198... ...
More comprehensive, direct, and context specific strategies must be sought simultaneously -- raising community awareness of the negative effects of early marriage and countering fears of allowing girls to remain single; providing for the acquisition of usable vocational and life skills; and enhancing young women's real access to and control over economic resources and decision making relating to their own lives. REFERENCES Altekar, A.S.
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From page 199... ...
. Dowry "inflation" in rural India: A statistical investigation.
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