The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries Selected Studies (2005) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
9 Growing Up in Pakistan: The Separate Experiences of Males and Females--Cynthia B. Lloyd and Monica J. Grant
9 Growing Up in Pakistan: The Separate Experiences of Males and Females--Cynthia B. Lloyd and Monica J. Grant
Pages 320-366
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From page 320... ...
Those who do attend school eventually take up gender-stereotyped roles; however, they do so with some delay, allowing them to experience a longer transition to adulthood. For both males and females, there appears to be a large lag in years between the assumption of adult work roles, whether in the domestic setting or in the labor market, and the assumption of adult family roles as marked by the timing of first marriage.
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From page 321... ...
Here, we concentrate on three relatively easy-to-measure transitions in particular: the transition to paid work, the transition to marriage, and the departure from the natal home. The second section explores the transition to work in more depth with time use data on all types of work, including unpaid economic work and noneconomic household work.
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From page 322... ...
For each transition, he measured the age at which 25 percent, 50 percent, and 75 percent of each age cohort had made each transition, and he measured the duration of the transition as the mean years elapsed between the age at which the first 25 percent completed the transition and the age at which the first 75 percent completed the transition. He found a trend toward a later start to the
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From page 323... ...
Rapid economic and social change can also challenge existing gender roles, including traditional pathways to adulthood. There has been little opportunity to study transitions to adulthood in developing countries given the lack of longitudinal data on adolescents or retrospective life event calendars covering the adolescent years.
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From page 324... ...
In light of these circumstances, in the second part of the chapter we build on a literature exploring time use in the context of development -- not just time spent in economic activity, but also time spent on noneconomic household work. While there is a rich literature on the determinants of child labor and schooling, little attention in the adolescent literature is devoted to other types of work, including unpaid work and domestic chores, which are less well measured in most surveys (for notable exceptions see Levison and Moe, 1998; Levison, Moe, and Knaul, 2001)
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From page 325... ...
By contrast, in postindustrial schooled populations, household work rarely exceeds one hour per day. Furthermore, their review of the literature suggests that girls spend significantly more time than boys on noneconomic domestic work, with their tasks more likely to be confined within the home.
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From page 326... ...
The component of the life event calendar focusing on work experience was intended to ascertain the timing of both unpaid and paid work; however, given that many young people engage in multiple activities, some paid and others unpaid, we found that only paid work was recorded on the calendar. Thus, we use these data to identify the first entry into paid work and turn to the time use profile for a more complete picture of work roles over the course of the transition.
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From page 327... ...
Looking at the youngest cohort first (ages 15 to 19) , we see that a slight majority of females have ever attended school (54 percent)
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From page 328... ...
We are unable to look at timing of first work more broadly, including unpaid work, because little unpaid work was reported in the life event calendar despite efforts to define work broadly. Each figure is derived from the data collected in the life event calendar and depicted according to the three phases described above.5 Looking first at Figure 9-1, almost no females who ever entered school marry or leave home before age 15, and no more than 10 percent start paid work during this first phase of the transition.
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From page 329... ...
Ever attended school Early Middle Late 100 80 60 Percentage 40 20 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Age Leaving home Paid work Marriage Leaving school FIGURE 9-1 Comparison of transitions to adulthood: Females. SOURCE: 2001/2002 Adolescent and Youth Survey in Pakistan.
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From page 330... ...
Marriage rates begin to rise during the middle phase of the transition, but reach only a little under 60 percent by our final point of observation. By contrast, entry into first paid work appears to be closely tied to school leaving among those who ever attended school, thus holding the prevalence of first work to about 25 percent by age 15, a rate that is still very high by international standards (Figure 9-2b)
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From page 331... ...
Ever attended school Early Middle Late 100 80 60 Percentage 40 20 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Age Leaving home Paid work Marriage Leaving school FIGURE 9-2 Comparison of transitions to adulthood: Males. SOURCE: 2001/2002 Adolescent and Youth Survey in Pakistan.
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From page 332... ...
Ever attended school Early Middle Late 100 80 60 Percentage 40 20 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Age Leaving school, ages 15-19 Leaving school, ages 20-24 Paid work, ages 15-19 Paid work, ages 20-24 FIGURE 9-3 Changes in school and work transitions: Females. SOURCE: 2001/2002 Adolescent and Youth Survey in Pakistan.
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From page 333... ...
Recent changes in transitions to marriage and home leaving during the early and middle phases of the transition are depicted for females in Figures 9-4a and 9-b. Whether or not females have ever attended school, there appears to be a tendency toward later ages of marriage and home leaving during the middle phase of the transition among the younger cohort.
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From page 334... ...
Ever attended school Early Middle Late 100 80 60 Percentage 40 20 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Age Leaving home, ages 15-19 Leaving home, ages 20-24 Marriage, ages 15-19 Marriage, ages 20-24 FIGURE 9-4 Changes in marriage and leaving home transitions: Females. SOURCE: 2001/2002 Adolescent and Youth Survey in Pakistan.
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From page 335... ...
335 c c 3.3 3.0 0.0 1.3 2.4 0.4 4.7 0.0 4.2 20.0 56.7 15.8 77.0 11.2 Female 164 146 24 c c 0.0 0.0 6.2 0.0 8.7 0.0 2.9 1.3 0.0 1.0 85.0 32 46.7 24.3 23.8 Age Male 133 b b 2.9 2.5 0.1 1.7 7.3 3.8 0.2 2.5 2.3 27.9 37.5 27.4 69.0 14.9 951 Female 1,093 b b 19 1.5 1.4 2.4 0.0 1.2 3.6 1.6 2.0 Ages 75.4 18.1 41.3 15.8 22.7 13.1 218 Age Male 1,003 Selected of a a 1.8 0.6 0.0 7.0 0.5 4.0 2.2 0.0 2.1 0.3 22.1 68.0 38.4 52.9 End Female 2,352 2,451 the by Pakistan. a a 14 1.7 0.7 0.8 0.0 0.0 9.3 2.6 0.3 8.5 0.3 in 50.4 46.5 18.0 61.0 535 Age Male 2,724 Survey Transitions Youth First and of School School work home marriage paid Adolescent Attended home home leaving and Attended and 20-24.
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From page 336... ...
Additionally, while all females eventually take up noneconomic household work roles, only a minority ever take up paid work roles at any age. For females, our approach is unable to capture the timing of the work transition.
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From page 337... ...
19.0 13.2 14.0 * 22.3 and reached Which not by Adolescent was School Age Transition School of work work home school home Quartile 9-4 = 2001/2002 Attended paid marriage paid marriage *
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From page 338... ...
While little information on unpaid economic work was reported in the work section of the questionnaire or on the life event calendar, we picked up considerably more reporting of unpaid economic work in the time use profile, suggesting that it is often useful to use multiple research methodologies when collecting data on aspects of behavior that are known to be hard to measure. Tables 9-5 through 9-7 present descriptive data on time devoted to all types of work, including noneconomic household work broken down by type of work, age group,9 sex, and current enrollment status.
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From page 339... ...
For young males, therefore, part of becoming an adult involves a shift from unpaid economic work for family to outside paid work. There appears to be no such transition for young females, the overwhelming majority of whom start working on noneconomic household work as children and remain in that status as adults.
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From page 340... ...
340 390 899 507 643 946 865 420 294 56 50 820 276 183 36 16 511 N 2,439 1,297 1,045 4,153 Profile Total Work 87.6 85.1 84.3 86.3 85.7 98.9 98.4 99.1 99.0 98.8 49.9 43.5 59.0 25.7 47.1 75.5 79.7 67.2 90.8 76.8 Use Time in Outside 47.0 49.4 53.8 59.0 52.4 10.1 9.4 7.3 12.4 9.9 5.6 6.0 17.5 12.6 6.9 0.0 0.7 4.8 0.0 0.6 Recorded Work Paid Inside 2.5 2.6 3.3 3.3 2.9 9.8 11.7 11.2 6.9 9.9 1.1 0.3 0.0 2.2 0.8 0.9 3.8 3.5 2.1 2.2 Activity a and Work of Unpaid Work Learning Skill 17.2 15.1 14.3 10.3 14.1 9.9 7.5 6.6 7.2 7.8 6.4 7.2 7.4 2.3 6.5 2.9 1.5 0.0 9.4 2.4 Category Outside 36.1 32.2 25.6 24.0 29.4 19.7 17.9 16.2 15.7 17.4 26.2 22.9 16.6 3.0 23.3 3.1 3.9 13.5 0.0 4.0 Each Work on Time Noneconomic Household Inside 15.1 15.4 13.4 17.2 15.4 97.4 96.6 98.4 97.6 97.4 18.8 12.9 18.7 6.6 16.1 74.2 77.8 64.3 90.8 75.2 Reporting Age 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total Percentage Status 9-5 School school school and in in school school TABLE Sex Male: Not Female: Not Male: In Female: In
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From page 341... ...
341 810 563 693 901 1,193 3,259 1,222 1,480 1,061 4,664 69.3 76.1 82.0 83.0 76.8 94.1 96.4 98.0 98.9 96.7 26.9 40.0 50.4 56.5 41.9 8.0 8.4 7.2 12.3 9.0 1.8 2.1 3.0 3.3 2.4 7.9 10.8 11.0 6.8 9.2 11.9 13.4 13.7 9.9 12.3 8.4 6.9 6.3 7.2 7.2 31.3 30.1 24.8 22.9 28.0 16.2 16.4 16.1 15.6 16.1 Pakistan. in Survey 16.9 14.9 13.9 16.6 15.6 92.6 94.5 97.3 97.5 95.3 Youth and 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total Adolescent 2001/2002 Male: All Female: All SOURCE:
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From page 342... ...
342 390 899 507 643 946 865 420 294 56 50 820 276 183 36 16 511 N 2,439 1,297 1,045 4,153 Profile Outside 57 62 66 71 64 10 15 25 45 75 24 12 Use Work Time Paid Inside 3 3 5 4 4 3 2 2 0 11 2 5 in a and Recorded Unpaid Work Learning Skill 17 14 13 8 13 2 15 20 15 4 16 v0 Type by Outside 17 16 12 11 14 6459 6367 5355 5 5358 44 34 16 4 36 2310 3132 7 0930 3221 Time Work Work of Noneconomic Household Inside 5 5 4 6 5 76 78 81 80 79 24 19 24 5 22 94 91 77 88 91 Distribution Age 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total Percentage Status 9-6 School school school and in in school school TABLE Sex Male: Not Female: Not Male: In Female: In
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From page 343... ...
343 810 563 693 901 1,193 3,259 1,222 1,480 1,061 4,664 51 60 65 71 62 3 3 4 4 4 17 14 14 8 13 21 17 12 11 15 6458 5367 5355 5239 5358 Pakistan. in 8 6 5 6 6 Survey 77 78 81 81 79 Youth and 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total Adolescent 2001/2002 Male: All Female: All SOURCE:
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From page 344... ...
344 390 899 507 643 946 865 420 294 56 50 820 276 183 36 16 511 N 2,439 1,297 1,045 4,153 Profile Use Total Work 6.9 6.6 6.4 6.9 6.7 8.0 7.9 8.4 8.6 8.2 1.1 1.2 1.8 1.0 1.2 1.8 2.2 1.9 3.4 2.0 Time in Outside 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.3 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 Recorded Work Activity Paid Inside 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 a Work and of Unpaid Work Learning Skill 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 Category Each Outside 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 on Work Day per Noneconomic Household Inside 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 6.1 6.2 6.8 6.9 6.5 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.3 1.7 2.0 1.5 3.0 1.8 Worked Age 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total Hours Mean Status 9-7 School school school and in in school school TABLE Sex Male: Not Female: Not Male: In Female: In
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From page 345... ...
345 810 563 693 901 1,193 3,259 1,222 1,480 1,061 4,664 4.10 5.41 6.02 6.59 5.43 6.70 7.29 8.16 8.57 7.61 2.10 3.26 3.93 4.67 3.38 0.54 0.52 0.43 0.81 0.58 0.13 0.15 0.27 0.30 0.19 0.35 0.43 0.42 0.27 0.37 0.69 0.77 0.81 0.52 0.71 0.26 0.23 0.24 0.20 0.23 0.86 0.90 0.73 0.72 0.82 0.39 0.40 0.42 0.39 0.40 Pakistan. in Survey 0.32 0.33 0.28 0.38 0.33 5.17 5.72 6.65 6.90 6.04 Youth and 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total 15-16 17-19 20-21 22-24 Total Adolescent 2001/2002 Male: All Female: All SOURCE:
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From page 346... ...
REDUCED-FORM TIME USE REGRESSIONS To identify some of the factors associated with changes in work time over the course of the transition to adulthood, we estimated reduced-form regression models of work time by work type, using individual, household, and community characteristics as righthand-side variables. We analyze unpaid economic work time, paid work time, and noneconomic household work separately using Tobit IV estimation to avoid the asymptotic bias of OLS in cases where there are a reasonable percentage of zero observations (see Table 9-8)
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From page 347... ...
37.73 64.78 34.21 58.96 HOUSEHOLD SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (LOW OMITTED) Low-mid 30.00 6.27 31.87 5.42 Mid-high 26.09 27.05 25.83 27.17 High 14.04 65.13 11.18 66.29 HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION No.
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From page 348... ...
, we scored the first component, which can reasonably be interpreted as a household's socioeconomic status, and divided it into quartiles of approximately equal size.14 In running these regressions, we were particularly interested in the associations between certain community variables and work time, especially variables affecting schooling and work opportunities as well as the availability of basic amenities such as water that would affect time allocation to noneconomic household work.15 We include dichotomous variables representing whether or not there was a factory or vocational training institute (for the appropriate sex) within the community or within two kilometers of the community.
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From page 349... ...
. This may be explained by the fact that hours spent on noneconomic household work are already high among the youngest rural females, ages 15 and 16, in our analysis.
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From page 350... ...
acres Results (yes (yes 0-5 6-24 25-64 (15-16 wealth (low 6-24 25-64 65+ 9-9 literate literate children males females males females elderly agricultural dummy dummy 17-19 20-21 22-24 Low-mid Mid-high High No.
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From page 351... ...
2001/2002 (yes school secondary n.a. (none Middle Secondary Higher COMMUNITY Government Factory Vocational Highest Controlling Statistically Statistically a b cStatistically d NOTE: SOURCE:
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From page 352... ...
acres Results (yes (yes 0-5 6-24 25-64 (15-16 wealth (low 6-24 25-64 65+ 9-10 literate literate children males females males females elderly agricultural dummy dummy 17-19 20-21 22-24 Low-mid Mid-high High No.
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From page 353... ...
2001/2002 (yes school secondary n.a. (none Middle Secondary Higher COMMUNITY Government Factory Vocational Highest Controlling Statistically Statistically a b cStatistically d NOTE: SOURCE:
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From page 354... ...
= = quartile omitted) acres Results (yes (yes 0-5 6-24 25-64 (15-16 wealth (low 6-24 25-64 65+ 9-11 literate literate children males females males females elderly agricultural dummy dummy 17-19 20-21 22-24 Low-mid Mid-high High No.
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From page 355... ...
2001/2002 (yes school secondary n.a. (none Middle Secondary Higher COMMUNITY Government Factory Vocational Highest Controlling Statistically Statistically Statistically a b c d NOTE: SOURCE:
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From page 356... ...
acres Results (yes (yes 0-5 25-64 (15-16 wealth (low 6-24 6-24 25-64 65+ 9-12 literate literate children males emales males females elderly agricultural dummy dummy 17-19 20-21 22-24 Low-mid Mid-high High No.
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From page 357... ...
2001/2002 (yes school secondary n.a. (none Middle Secondary Higher COMMUNITY Government Factory Vocational Highest Controlling Statistically Statistically a b cStatistically d NOTE: SOURCE:
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From page 358... ...
acres Results (yes (yes 0-5 6-24 25-64 (15-16 wealth (low 6-24 25-64 65+ 9-13 literate literate children males females males females elderly agricultural dummy dummy 17-19 20-21 22-24 Low-mid Mid-high High No.
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From page 359... ...
2001/2002 (yes school secondary n.a. (none Middle Secondary Higher COMMUNITY Government Factory Vocational Highest Controlling Statistically Statistically a b cStatistically d NOTE: SOURCE:
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From page 360... ...
acres Results (yes (yes 0-5 6-24 25-64 (15-16 wealth (low 6-24 25-64 65+ 9-14 literate literate children males females males females elderly agricultural dummy dummy 17-19 20-21 22-24 Low-mid Mid-high High No.
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From page 361... ...
2001/2002 (yes school secondary n.a. (none Middle Secondary Higher COMMUNITY Government Factory Vocational Highest Controlling Statistically Statistically a b cStatistically d NOTE: SOURCE:
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From page 362... ...
These associations are most apparent for the youngest age group, where females in the wealthiest households work six fewer hours than those in the poorest. For young females, being in the highest quartile of the wealth distribution is associated with a small but statistically significant decline in noneconomic household work time in both urban (Table 9-13)
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From page 363... ...
We found that the presence of a government source of water is significantly associated with a reduction of unpaid economic work time for males in urban areas and for females in rural areas. It is also significantly associated with a reduction in noneconomic household work time for males in rural areas (where there appears to be a gender division of labor, with males doing the outside domestic chores such as fetching water while females remain in the household)
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From page 364... ...
To summarize, workloads for young males and females remain relatively equal as long as they remain in school. Upon school exit, males for the most part take up paid work outside the home, while females take up noneconomic household work, primarily of the sort that can be done within the home.
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From page 365... ...
Those who attend school eventually assume gender-stereotyped roles; however, they do so with some delay, which allows them to experience a longer transition to adulthood. For both males and females, there appears to be a substantial lag in years between the assumption of adult work roles and assumption of adult family roles as marked by the timing of the transition to marriage.
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From page 366... ...
. Household work as a deterrent to schooling: An analysis of adolescent girls in Peru.
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