Hispanics and the Future of America (2006) / Chapter Skim
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7 Hispanics in the U.S. Labor Market--Brian Duncan, V. Joseph Hotz, and Stephen J. Trejo
7 Hispanics in the U.S. Labor Market--Brian Duncan, V. Joseph Hotz, and Stephen J. Trejo
Pages 228-290
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From page 228... ...
First, we confirm the findings in Chapter 6 as well as numerous other studies that Hispanics have markedly lower levels of educational attainment than do whites or blacks and that these educational deficits are more pronounced for the foreign-born. Second, while the employment and earnings of Hispanics tend to lag behind those of whites, almost all of the differences relative to whites can be accounted for by a relatively small number of measures of human capital, namely, years of schooling, English proficiency, and potential work experience.
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From page 229... ...
Whether these differences reflect evidence of labor market discrimination or unmeasured differences in the quality of schooling and the amount of actual work experience is less certain. But at issue is whether observed measures of human capital have different impacts on the degree of labor market success by race or ethnicity.
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From page 230... ...
One of the most important and easiest to observe dimensions of human capital is educational attainment, and Chapter 6 has documented the obstacles faced by Hispanic children in U.S. schools.
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From page 231... ...
Among the Hispanic subgroups, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans display the same general patterns as Hispanics overall, with substantial schooling growth between immigrants and the U.S.-born, yet a large educational deficit relative to whites that persists even for the U.S.-born. Average education levels among the foreign-born, however, are much lower for Mexicans than for Puerto Ricans (8.5 years versus more than 11 years, respectively)
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From page 232... ...
Hispanics distinguish between immigrants and the U.S.-born. English language proficiency is an important dimension of human capital closely related to nativity.
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From page 233... ...
NOTE: The samples include individuals ages 25 to 59. In these tabulations, those who speak only English are presumed to speak English "very well." See Appendix Table A7-2 for further details.
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From page 234... ...
Nevertheless, undocumented immigration assumes a minor role in the Hispanic labor market story compared with the leading role played by human capital. Indeed, we show below that, even without controlling for legal status, all or most of the earnings deficits of Hispanic immigrants can be explained by their low levels of education and English proficiency.
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From page 235... ...
, by Gender, Ethnicity, and Nativity Men, by Nativity Women, by Nativity Ethnicity All Foreign-Born U.S.-Born All Foreign-Born U.S.-Born Whites 91.8 80.2 Blacks 77.4 77.7 All Hispanics 86.8 87.5 85.6 67.0 61.2 76.3 Mexicans 87.8 88.5 86.5 64.7 56.1 76.4 Puerto Ricans 80.0 76.6 83.8 67.7 60.8 75.5 Cubans 87.3 86.8 89.1 74.7 72.5 82.5 NOTE: The samples include individuals ages 25 to 59. See Appendix Table A7-3 for standard errors, as well as for analogous calculations for other Hispanic subgroups.
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From page 236... ...
Controlling for Education and English Proficiency: 15 12.5 10 8.4 5.5 Differential 5 3.6 2.8 1.9 Point 0.1 0 -5 -4.0 Percentage -10 -7.8 All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks FIGURE 7-2 Male employment deficits relative to U.S.-born whites, by ethnicity and nativity. NOTE: The samples include individuals ages 25 to 59.
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From page 237... ...
Not Controlling for Education or English Proficiency: 24.8 25 19.1 18.8 20 15 Differential 10 6.9 5.9 Point 4.0 4.1 5 2.3 0 -0.6 -5 Percentage All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks -10 B Controlling for Education and English Proficiency: 25 20 15 Differential 8.8 10 Point 5 2.1 2.8 1.6 0.2 0 -0.6 -0.6 -0.3 -5 -1.4 Percentage -10 All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks FIGURE 7-3 Female employment deficits relative to U.S.-born whites, by ethnicity and nativity.
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From page 238... ...
tend to vanish. For example, after adjusting for age and geographic location, Mexican men have employment deficits of 56 percentage points, but controlling for human capital lowers the deficit to 2 percentage points for U.S.-born Mexican Americans and creates a large employment advantage for Mexican immigrants.
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From page 239... ...
, by Gender, Ethnicity, and Nativity Men, by Nativity Women, by Nativity Ethnicity All Foreign-Born U.S.-Born All Foreign-Born U.S.-Born Whites 13.9 8.1 Blacks 5.8 3.4 All Hispanics 8.2 8.4 7.9 6.6 8.0 5.0 Mexicans 7.5 7.4 7.7 6.1 7.6 4.8 Puerto Ricans 5.6 5.7 5.5 4.0 4.2 3.8 Cubans 15.9 16.9 12.7 7.4 7.6 7.1 NOTE: The samples include individuals ages 25 to 59 who were employed during the census reference week. See Appendix Table A7-5 for standard errors, as well as for analogous calculations for other Hispanic subgroups.
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From page 240... ...
240 1.4 1.8 3.1 8.6 5.5 0.3 0.8 7.5 11.0 17.2 51.3 44.9 35.6 11.0 Whites 100.0 100.0 0.3 0.7 4.7 7.6 0.2 0.9 12.1 12.6 51.7 10.4 38.8 32.0 15.6 12.5 Blacks 100.0 100.0 Nativity and Nativity 0.9 1.4 9.4 3.7 8.6 7.7 0.4 0.8 7.8 U.S.-Born Hispanics 17.5 50.8 37.7 39.2 14.0 100.0 100.0 and Ethnicity by week. 2.7 1.1 2.5 5.0 2.8 2.9 1.1 Ethnicity, 18.9 20.6 46.4 22.7 23.6 27.7 22.1 Women, Foreign-Born Hispanics 100.0 100.0 reference 4.3 7.9 5.1 6.6 7.9 0.9 Gender, Whites 12.6 21.3 16.3 26.0 35.8 16.2 18.9 20.3 100.0 100.0 census by the 2.2 8.4 4.0 9.5 0.9 21.2 10.6 15.4 28.8 21.4 15.9 16.3 14.8 30.8 during Blacks 100.0 100.0 Nativity (Percentages)
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From page 241... ...
. Foreign-born Hispanics of both sexes are underrepresented in the managerial/professional and technical/sales occupations, which is not surprising given the low education levels and imperfect English skills of many Hispanic immigrants, and they are overrepresented in the service and operators/laborers occupations.
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From page 242... ...
. To illustrate these patterns, Figures 7-4 and 7-5 display annual earnings gaps for Hispanics and blacks.16 The graphs show the estimated percentage earnings deficits for each group relative to U.S.-born whites.17 The samples include individuals ages 25 to 59 who worked during the calendar year preceding the decennial census.18 Figure 7-4 presents the results for men 16 Our measure of earnings includes any income from self-employment.
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From page 243... ...
Not Controlling for Education or English Proficiency: 65.8 70 58.8 46.3 50 44.0 Differential 33.4 30.7 29.7 31.5 Point 30 10 Percentage -0.7 -10 All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks B Controlling for Education and English Proficiency: 70 50 Differential 34.8 Point 30 16.2 13.3 12.9 13.8 9.7 10 4.5 Percentage -10 -2.4 -3.6 All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks FIGURE 7-4 Male annual earnings deficits relative to U.S.-born whites, by ethnicity and nativity.
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From page 244... ...
Controlling for Education and English Proficiency: 65 50 Differential 35 Point 20 3.7 5 -0.2 -10 -2.5 -1.9 -4.4 -2.6 -6.0 -5.3 Percentage -25 -16.8 All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks FIGURE 7-5 Female annual earnings deficits relative to U.S.-born whites, by ethnicity and nativity. NOTE: The samples include individuals ages 25 to 59 who worked during the calendar year preceding the survey.
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From page 245... ...
Among both men and women, Mexicans exhibit the largest earnings growth between immigrants and natives, but substantial growth of this sort also occurs for Puerto Ricans and Cubans, as well as for the other Hispanic subgroups reported in Appendix Table A7-7. U.S.-born Cubans, in particular, have relatively high earnings.
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From page 246... ...
Nonetheless, the issue is whether measures of potential work experience accurately represent the actual work experiences of various demographic groups, and whether the use of potential rather than actual work experience biases estimated earnings regressions.20 The employment rates reported in Table 7-2 (and Appendix Table A7-3) 19Following the influential work of Mincer (1974)
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From page 247... ...
Moreover, the extent to which work experience is systematically related to years of schooling can generate bias in estimated returns to education.21 In the next section, we explore these issues by investigating how Hispanic men and women differ relative to whites and blacks using longitudinal data for a set of birth cohorts who began their transition from school to work during the 1980s. We also discuss findings on whether the returns to schooling and work experience for Hispanics differ from those of whites or blacks.
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From page 248... ...
488 111 377 769 1,588 493 103 390 720 1,523 NOTE: Italicized values below average accumulated years and proportions are deficits relative to whites.
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From page 249... ...
With respect to full-time work, Hispanic men worked 0.42 fewer years or 10 percent less than white men, and Hispanic women worked 0.47 years or 14.5 percent less than their white counterparts. As with overall work experience, foreign-born Hispanic men worked almost as many years between the ages of 13 and 27 as did native-born white men, but foreign-born Hispanic women were less likely to acquire full-time work experience than either U.S.-born Hispanic or white women.
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From page 250... ...
To the extent that full-time work experience reflects greater attachment to the labor force and is more likely to enhance one's human capital than part-time experience, these differences may play an important role in the subsequent success Hispanics had in earnings and the growth of earnings over their life-cycle. We also present in Table 7-5 estimates of the years Hispanics spent in military service and compare them to whites and blacks.
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From page 251... ...
Standard models of human capital accumulation (Mincer, 1974) argue that individuals acquire human capital through schooling and from the on-the-job training and experiences that are a by-product of early work experiences.
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From page 252... ...
can result from two factors: differences in the amounts of human capital -- e.g., schooling, English language proficiency, and the amount and types of accumulated work experience -- and differences in the returns to human capital across groups. We have already seen that a key difference between Hispanic young men and their black and white counterparts is the markedly lower levels of educational attainment for the former group.
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From page 253... ...
253 Whites 3.56 3.65 3.95 4.19 4.80 5.10 9.62 6.42 7.06 7.14 7.34 9.56 7.78 0.085 age. lar Blacks 12.20 4.50 3.33 4.06 4.17 4.55 4.97 4.81 5.88 6.17 8.75 10.14 7.74 0.04 0.069 particu a at U.S.-Born 7.60 3.42 3.64 4.03 4.34 5.48 5.79 6.09 6.11 6.41 6.87 7.23 6.66 1.12 0.081 working Hispanics Foreign-Born 4.94 3.25 3.90 4.11 4.02 4.99 6.42 5.10 7.41 6.52 6.95 6.45 6.83 0.94 0.062 reported Women who Young All 7.11 3.39 3.69 4.05 4.28 5.39 5.91 5.90 6.34 6.43 6.88 7.09 6.69 1.09 0.077 Whites 3.79 3.91 4.42 5.22 5.46 5.69 6.73 8.09 7.98 8.57 10.65 10.04 9.31 respondents 0.092 over 27 Blacks 3.53 3.98 3.76 4.14 4.55 5.07 5.77 6.33 6.64 7.50 7.13 9.21 7.62 1.69 0.082 to taken 16 were Ages U.S.-Born 4.81 4.34 4.17 4.98 5.28 5.59 6.10 6.71 7.23 7.67 8.29 8.02 7.80 1.51 0.074 Averages Age, Men by dollars.
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From page 254... ...
individual "ability," that is, one's capacity to generate labor market earnings in the absence of any further skill acquisition and/or their productivity in converting schooling and work experience into market earnings and (b) "opportunities," that is, the nontime costs of acquiring human capital and/or the ability to finance these costs.
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From page 255... ...
Given the lower levels of educational attainment of Hispanics relative to their white and
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From page 256... ...
Thus, a closer look at how Hispanics fared in the labor market over time and across generations is clearly in order. Changes in Educational Attainment and Labor Market Earnings Over Time We begin by discussing what happened to the educational attainment of Hispanics over the latter part of the 20th century.
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From page 257... ...
The declines in the earnings of Hispanic women relative to their white counterparts were even larger, declining by 18.5 percentage points from 1980 to 2000. Notably, the earnings of Hispanic men and women also declined relative to U.S.-born blacks, with the declines being steeper for men relative to women.
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From page 258... ...
to of 75.8 91.7 53.1 92.5 Blacks 1990 100.6 137.2 131.5 108.1 133.3 154.9 148.9 193.3 analogous Earnings an in Columns Relative 88.3 69.5 91.4 81.8 Annual Percentage U.S.-Born 1980 106.8 125.7 101.8 121.0 126.8 141.2 140.3 151.6 A7-7, constructed Table 56.0 50.8 41.2 69.3 45.8 34.2 66.6 62.0 53.7 70.3 75.8 68.5 2000 100.7 are PUMS. Hispanics as of 5% 1990 of Appendix Whites 1990 49.5 49.8 37.5 67.9 45.4 26.3 65.1 53.5 45.8 66.0 76.7 73.7 95.7 and Earnings from censuses Earnings 1980 Men Annual Percentage U.S.-Born 1980 54.8 58.5 48.4 68.9 55.8 38.1 66.3 50.1 44.8 69.5 77.4 76.9 83.1 for taken 2000 are Annual 1990, estimates 2000 7-7 blacks for 1980, Ricans The Hispanics All Foreign-born U.S.-born All Foreign-born U.S.-born All Foreign-born U.S.-born All Foreign-born U.S.-born TABLE Ethnicity/Nativity U.S.-born All Mexicans Puerto Cubans NOTE: estimates SOURCE:
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From page 259... ...
The trends in the relative labor market earnings of Hispanics are markedly different for those who are foreign-born and U.S.-born. For Hispanics taken as a group and for all subgroups but Puerto Ricans, the earnings of foreign-born Hispanics either declined or remained unchanged relative to the earnings of whites and blacks.
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From page 260... ...
For our purposes, important drawbacks of the CPS data are the smaller sample sizes and the absence of information about English proficiency. The standard method for identifying Hispanics in CPS data is to use respondents' self-reported information about their ethnicity.
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From page 261... ...
The bottom panel of Figure 7-8 shows what happens to these earnings gaps when we condition on schooling.32 As before, all of the earnings 30 Because our CPS samples include very few Cubans who are third generation, only statistics for the first and second generations are shown for this national-origin group. See Appendix Table A7-8 for the calculations underlying Figure 7-7, including standard errors and cell sample sizes.
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From page 262... ...
Women: 15 14.3 13.6 12.612.4 12.712.8 12.6 12.9 12.2 12.2 11.6 9.9 10 8.7 5 0 All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks Whites FIGURE 7-7 Average years of schooling, by gender, ethnicity, and generation. NOTE: The samples include individuals ages 25 to 59.
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From page 263... ...
Not Controlling for Education: 70 66.8 60.6 60 50 48.1 40.9 39.1 40 38.1 Differential 31.4 30.7 30.6 30 27.1 20 16.2 Percentage 10 0 -2.1 -10 All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks B Controlling for Education: 70 60 50 40 Differential 30.9 30 26.3 22.5 19.0 20 17.7 18.2 13.3 12.4 13.1 Percentage 10 7.0 5.4 1.2 0 All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks -10 FIGURE 7-8 Male annual earnings deficits relative to 3rd+ generation whites, by ethnicity and generation.
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From page 264... ...
Controlling for Education: 65 55 45 35 Differential 25 15 11.2 9.3 5.2 Percentage 5 0.7 0.7 -5 -0.8 -3.0 -5.3 -4.8 -5.1 -4.1 -2.7 -15 All Hispanics Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Blacks FIGURE 7-9 Female annual earnings deficits relative to 3rd+ generation whites, by ethnicity and generation. NOTE: The samples include women ages 25 to 59 who worked during the calendar year preceding the survey.
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From page 265... ...
In his Table 4, for example, five of the six most recent cohorts of Mexicans experience no wage gains between the second and third generations. Moreover, all studies conclude that large education and earnings deficits remain for third- and higher-generation Mexican Americans.33 If we assume that schooling is complete by the age of 25 and does not change thereafter, we can use our CPS samples to conduct an analysis of intergenerational changes in Hispanic educational attainment similar in spirit to that of Smith (2003)
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From page 266... ...
Patterns are similar for women, with the implied intergenerational gains somewhat larger than those for men. For Hispanics overall, comparing older and younger women across generations yields schooling growth of 3.7 years between the first and second generations and 1.2 years between the second and third generations.
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From page 267... ...
. Consequently, the descendants of Hispanic immigrants who continue to identify themselves as Hispanic in the third and higher generations may be a select group.35 In particular, if the most successful Hispanics are more likely to intermarry or for other reasons cease to identify themselves or their children as Hispanic, then available data may understate human capital and earnings gains between the second and third generations.
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From page 268... ...
Not surprisingly, we also found that Hispanics in the United States have lower levels of English proficiency than their white or black counterparts. It is well documented that these forms of human capital, especially educational attainment, are important for success in the U.S.
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From page 269... ...
, one does find evidence of progress between the second and higher generations in educational attainment once one appropriately aligns the data to reflect secular changes. At the same, the corresponding progress in earnings is less clear-cut, especially among younger cohorts of Mexicans.
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From page 270... ...
. Human capital: A theoretical analysis with special reference to education (2nd ed.)
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From page 271... ...
. Investment in human capital and personal income distribution.
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From page 272... ...
. Wage determinants: A survey and reinterpretation of human capital earn ings functions.
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From page 273... ...
[92,161] Puerto Ricans 11.7 11.2 12.4 12.0 11.4 12.7 (0.02)
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From page 274... ...
274 HISPANICS AND THE FUTURE OF AMERICA APPENDIX TABLE A7-2 English Proficiency, by Gender, Detailed Ethnicity, and Nativity Men, by Nativity Women, by Nativity Foreign- U.S.- Foreign- U.S.Ethnicity All Born Born All Born Born Whites Percent who speak English Only 96.9 96.8 Very well 2.5 2.6 Well 0.4 0.3 Not well 0.2 0.3 Not at all 0.007 0.008 Blacks Percent who speak English Only 96.6 97.2 Very well 2.5 2.0 Well 0.5 0.4 Not well 0.4 0.3 Not at all 0.008 0.008 All Hispanics Percent who speak English Only 17.4 5.9 38.6 18.1 6.2 37.1 Very well 34.4 26.3 49.2 36.1 26.3 51.7 Well 19.9 25.8 9.2 16.3 21.0 8.6 Not well 19.2 28.2 2.5 17.7 27.4 2.2 Not at all 9.1 13.9 0.4 11.8 18.9 0.4 Mexicans Percent who speak English Only 17.3 5.5 37.5 19.1 6.4 36.4 Very well 31.2 20.5 49.5 33.2 19.7 51.4 Well 19.6 25.4 9.8 14.6 18.5 9.4 Not well 21.0 31.7 2.7 18.5 30.4 2.4 Not at all 10.9 17.0 0.5 14.5 24.9 0.5 Puerto Ricans Percent who speak English Only 20.3 9.1 32.9 16.1 6.7 26.7 Very well 52.3 49.0 56.0 55.0 47.9 63.0 Well 17.0 24.4 8.7 16.5 23.5 8.5 Not well 8.3 13.7 2.2 9.4 16.3 1.7 Not at all 2.1 3.8 0.1 3.1 5.6 0.1 Cubans Percent who speak English Only 12.2 6.4 33.3 11.6 5.6 32.5 Very well 45.2 41.2 59.7 48.6 44.6 62.6 Well 16.1 19.1 5.3 14.2 17.3 3.4 Not well 16.8 21.0 1.4 14.7 18.5 1.3 Not at all 9.6 12.2 0.3 10.9 14.0 0.1
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From page 275... ...
HISPANICS IN THE U.S. LABOR MARKET 275 APPENDIX TABLE A7-2 Continued Men, by Nativity Women, by Nativity Foreign- U.S.- Foreign- U.S.Ethnicity All Born Born All Born Born Dominicans Percent who speak English Only 6.7 5.6 17.7 6.2 5.5 13.5 Very well 29.1 25.5 67.8 26.7 22.5 74.6 Well 25.8 27.2 11.0 21.6 22.7 9.0 Not well 26.6 28.8 2.7 29.0 31.3 2.4 Not at all 11.8 12.8 0.9 16.5 18.0 0.5 Salvadorans/Guatemalans Percent who speak English Only 4.7 4.1 26.7 5.8 5.0 27.7 Very well 24.1 23.2 55.2 21.7 20.5 58.5 Well 28.8 29.3 11.6 24.7 25.2 8.7 Not well 30.2 30.9 5.5 31.5 32.4 3.3 Not at all 12.2 12.5 1.0 16.4 16.9 1.8 Other Central Americans Percent who speak English Only 9.8 6.5 44.1 9.7 6.6 45.1 Very well 34.6 33.6 45.7 35.1 34.2 45.7 Well 23.3 24.7 8.2 22.4 23.8 6.5 Not well 21.9 23.9 1.1 21.2 22.8 2.1 Not at all 10.4 11.3 0.9 11.6 12.6 0.7 Colombians Percent who speak English Only 7.3 4.9 30.0 6.3 4.5 27.1 Very well 36.4 34.0 57.7 31.6 28.9 63.8 Well 28.6 30.8 8.6 26.5 28.2 5.3 Not well 20.8 22.8 2.7 24.8 26.6 3.1 Not at all 6.8 7.5 1.0 10.9 11.7 0.6 Peruvians/Ecuadorans Percent who speak English Only 6.4 4.7 28.1 6.9 5.0 28.7 Very well 34.9 32.8 62.5 34.4 31.8 64.5 Well 29.1 30.9 6.2 25.7 27.5 5.6 Not well 23.4 25.0 2.5 24.3 26.3 1.0 Not at all 6.1 6.6 0.7 8.7 9.4 0.2 Other South Americans Percent who speak English Only 10.8 7.7 37.2 9.4 6.2 36.4 Very well 48.2 47.3 55.8 46.4 45.1 57.6 Well 25.7 28.0 5.9 25.7 28.3 4.8 Not well 12.1 13.5 0.9 14.2 15.8 1.2 Not at all 3.2 3.5 0.2 4.2 4.7 0 continues
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From page 276... ...
276 HISPANICS AND THE FUTURE OF AMERICA APPENDIX TABLE A7-2 Continued Men, by Nativity Women, by Nativity Foreign- U.S.- Foreign- U.S.Ethnicity All Born Born All Born Born Other Hispanics Percent who speak English Only 47.6 18.8 50.5 48.0 19.8 51.0 Very well 39.9 44.6 39.4 40.6 44.1 40.3 Well 9.3 24.4 7.8 8.4 23.9 6.8 Not well 2.9 10.5 2.1 2.5 10.2 1.7 Not at all 0.4 1.6 0.2 0.4 2.1 0.2 NOTE: The samples include individuals ages 25 to 59. SOURCE: 2000 census, 5% PUMS.
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From page 277... ...
(0.001) Puerto Ricans 0.800 0.766 0.838 0.677 0.608 0.755 (0.002)
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From page 278... ...
(.003) Puerto Ricans: All .119 .082 .079 .127 .075 .050 (.003)
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From page 279... ...
(.026) Other Central Americans: All .035 .014 .012 .087 .021 .030 (.005)
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From page 280... ...
(3) Controls for: Geographic location Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Education No Yes Yes No Yes Yes English proficiency No No Yes No No Yes NOTE: The reported figures are estimated coefficients from least-squares regressions in which the dependent variable is a dummy variable indicating whether the respondent worked at all during the calendar year preceding the survey.
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From page 281... ...
The samples include individuals ages 25 to 59 who were employed during the census reference week. SOURCE: 2000 census, 5% PUMS.
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From page 282... ...
(.002) Puerto Ricans: All .073 .072 .087 .033 .033 .039 (.004)
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From page 283... ...
(.022) Other Central Americans: All .056 .054 .067 .006 .006 .016 (.007)
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From page 284... ...
(3) Controls for: Geographic location Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Education No Yes Yes No Yes Yes English proficiency No No Yes No No Yes NOTE: The reported figures are estimated coefficients from least-squares regressions in which the dependent variable is a dummy variable indicating whether the respondent is self-employed.
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From page 285... ...
(.009) Puerto Ricans: All .380 .218 .162 .172 .028 .014 (.011)
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From page 286... ...
(.086) Other Central Americans: All .470 .216 .124 .357 .123 .045 (.019)
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From page 287... ...
(3) Controls for: Geographic location Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Education No Yes Yes No Yes Yes English proficiency No No Yes No No Yes NOTE: The reported figures are estimated coefficients from least-squares regressions in which the dependent variable is the natural logarithm of annual earnings.
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From page 289... ...
(.026) Puerto Ricans: All generations .402 .376 .189 .192 .175 .023 (.035)
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From page 290... ...
(.061) Controls for: Survey year Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Geographic location Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Education No No Yes No No Yes NOTE: The reported figures are estimated coefficients from least squares regressions in which the dependent variable is the natural logarithm of annual earnings.
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