Improving Risk Communication (1989) / Chapter Skim
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6 Problems of Risk Communication
6 Problems of Risk Communication
Pages 108-142
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From page 108... ...
The problems of these two groups are presented together because many things are problems for risk communicators because they are problems for the recipients of risk messages. For example, the risk communicator needs to pay attention to the understandability of risk messages because most recipients have difficulty comprehending the technical terms typically found in risk assessments and other technical analyses.
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From page 109... ...
Legal Considerations Risk communicators may be constrained because legal considerations influence the options available to risk managers and therefore the content of risk messages. Several kinds of legal provisions may provide such constraints, including (1)
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From page 110... ...
Employees are to be informed about the hazards of the materials they handle under Occupational Safety and Health Administration rules, communities are to be informed about inventories and emissions of hazardous substances under the community right-to-know provisions in Title Ill of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, and CaTifornia's Proposition 65 provides for provision of information about any product containing carcinogens or teratogens. The overall eject of such developments is that there are many more legal requirements that result in the preparation and dissemination of risk messages than in the past.
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From page 111... ...
. Communication research suggests that risk messages will be more easily understood when the risk communicator not only incorporates language familiar to the recipients but also genuinely respects and
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From page 112... ...
If all the important choices have already been determined, it will be difficult to reflect the views of the recipients. Risk messages will become little more than attempts to "sell" a predetermined conclusion, which may create considerable alienation among the intended recipients.
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From page 113... ...
This derives in part from the organization of large bureaucracies into separate divisions but also in part from the belief that separation of power yields greater benefit than cost. When fragmentation leads various parts of government to different positions or approaches with respect to the same risk, it can lead to problems for risk communicators.
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From page 114... ...
Organizations disseminating risk messages need to be aware of the effects of uneven access to information by those affected by or requesting the organization's action. Information is not free.
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From page 115... ...
The beliefs of risk communicators, and their interests, create incentives to slant or even distort or misrepresent information. This can skew messages in many different directions on the same issue.
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From page 116... ...
The blood banking community continues to claim that the blood supply is "as safe as it possibly can be for AIDS," although some recommend that additional screening procedures be used (Holland, 1987~. The point is that on matters of public controversy risk messages tend to be flavored by the positions taken by the sources of the various messages.
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From page 117... ...
One of the central aspects of risk communication is that risk messages are not created and transmitted in a vacuum. The policy, administrative, or political arena within which the communication process occurs is an important influence on what eventually happens.
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From page 118... ...
In exarn~ning the problems of risk communicators and risk recipients, we describe several things that make easily understandable risk messages difficult to achieve. We present general conclusions about mistakes to be avoided.
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From page 119... ...
~ . Real or Perceived Advocacy of Unjustified Positions Perhaps the most critical element of credibility for a source is the degree to which intermediaries and the ultimate recipients of the risk message believe that source to be justified in the position reflected in the message.
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From page 120... ...
All emphasized the limited inferences that could be drawn due to the lack of a control group. The reviews commissioned by federal agencies criticized the interpretation of the data on chromosome damage in the study, while those requested by the scientist conducting the study were more favorable concerning the data interpretation.
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From page 121... ...
In March 1981 the new Assistant Secretary of Labor for Occupational Safety and Health rescinded OSHA's sponsorship of the bulletin. In January 1982, OSHA denied a petition by labor unions for an emergency temporary standard to reduce formaldehyde levels in the workplace (Ashford et al., 1983~.
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From page 122... ...
But it also can help undermine the credibility of sources of risk messages. Parties with potential gain or Toss are motivated to develop the best evidence and strongest arguments for their respective positions.
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From page 123... ...
Another problem for the recipient of risk messages is to differentiate conflicts based on scientific disagreement about the facts or their interpretation from conflicts based on advocacy of policy aims. Sometimes this requires determination of the extent to which the facts reflect advocacy.
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From page 124... ...
Professional Incompetence and Impropriety A major element helping determine the credibility of risk messages is the perceived competence of the individual or organization concerning the subject under question. An individual with special training about the phenomena involved is often accorded greater credibility than someone whose training is less relevant.
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From page 125... ...
The obligation of public officials and organizations to act in the public interest even when their charge is less than perfectly clear can make the risk communicator's job more difficult. When the EPA publicizes the standards it sets, the reasons for them, and the penalties for violation for topics within its statutory responsibilities, there is little objection.
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From page 126... ...
In Chapter 4, however, we discusser] the acceptability of influence in risk messages.
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From page 127... ...
These organizations are not expected to exhibit the same impartiality as government, and their attempts to present persuasive information are not viewed with the same suspicion. Access of Affected Parties to the Decision-Making Process Alienation of citizens due to the difficulty of getting government officials to listen to them or due to the judged inappropriateness of the officials' response has been repeatedly described as a major motivation of individuals who have become active in controversial issues.
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From page 128... ...
The Chemical Manufacturers Association, for example, organized a program called Community Awareness and Emergency Response (CAER) , which helps chemical plant managers provide information to their communities on a regular basis and involve the community in emergency response planning, including the chemical plant emergency response plans.
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From page 129... ...
But treating the positions taken by others respectfully and thoughtfully, and carefully and clearly laying out the premises and assumptions of one's position, are likely to enhance the reputation of nongovernmental organizations as well. Making Messages Underetandable The risk communicator needs to present information in language and concepts that recipients already understand:, that use magnitudes common in ordinary experience, and that are sensitive to the psycho[ogical needs of the recipients.
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From page 130... ...
Recipients of risk messages also need to be wary of "framing effects" differences that can result from the way information is presented. For example, one guide for chemical plant managers points out the following ways that the annual fatalities resulting from emission of an air toxic might be presented (Covello et al., 1988~: deaths per million people in the population, deaths per million people within miles of the facility, deaths per unit of concentration, deaths per facility, deaths per ton of the airborne toxic substance released, deaths per ton of the airborne toxic substance absorbed by people, deaths per ton of chemical produced, and deaths per million dollars of product produced.
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From page 131... ...
sensitivity of the decision to changes in the estimates. Unfamiliar Magnitudes Risk communicators are generally well aware that most people have difficulty comprehending magnitudes that are exceedingly small or exceedingly large.
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From page 132... ...
For them it may be that risk messages would elicit little differentiation of response regardless of their format, message content, or the organization from which they emanate. People are unlikely to be interested in risk information that they cannot use.
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From page 133... ...
It is harder still to know whether risk messages have an impact on their thinking. Preparing Messages with Few Data and No Time Sometimes the risk communicator must disseminate messages when there are not enough relevant data to draw satisfactory conclusions and; there is no time to obtain better information.
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From page 134... ...
Emergency situations are likely to expose the risk communicator to conflicting motivations. For example, a company dealing with an emergency release of toxic substances into the air, such as that from the Union Carbide plant at Institute, West Virginia, in August 1985, will probably balance several competing factors in deciding what messages to give out (Coppock, 1987~.
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From page 135... ...
Communicating on the Basis of Incomplete Information It is often difficult to estimate risks, consequences, and possible risk reduction measures with any precision. One result is that the risk communicator may be left with very little information that can be presented with confidence.
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From page 136... ...
Capturing and Focusing Attention Many other things compete with risk messages for attention, and the risk communicator often has difficulty getting intended recipients to attend to the issues. There are two separate aspects to this problem: (1)
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From page 137... ...
But they may turn to their friends in determining whether to be worried and alter their behavior. Risk communicators need to know what channels their intended audience uses for what aspects of risk information.
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From page 138... ...
An important part of this is to recognize the typical differences in the way risk communicators, as sources of information, and journalists approach information gathering and dissemination. Organizations involved in risk issues typically seek to centralize and restrict the flow of information, hoping to prevent the publication of damaging information.
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From page 139... ...
Risk messages are often routed to their intended recipients through health professionals or other intermediaries. In addition, the views of influential members of the community, such as county or local public health officers, prominent physicians, fire chiefs, and politicians, often provide valued guidance to citizens as they form their opinions about controversial issues.
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From page 140... ...
Working with intermediaries is essential in many situations. Intermediaries can help by providing special access to the intended recipients, credibility because the recipients consider them to be a trusted source of information, and additional tangible or intangible resources.
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From page 141... ...
For example, Title ITI of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, also called the Community Right-to-Know Act, includes provisions for creating emergency response plans and for reporting data about hazardous substances stored and regular ern~ssions to the EPA. The EPA must
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From page 142... ...
In most instances the problems of risk communicators and the recipients of risk messages are mirror images of each other. In the next chapter we describe conclusions and recommendations that are intended to improve risk communication in ways that will address the problems of risk communicators and of the recipients of risk messages.
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