The Future of Disability in America (2007) / Chapter Skim
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Appendix G Transportation Patterns and Problems of People with Disabilities
Appendix G Transportation Patterns and Problems of People with Disabilities
Pages 519-560
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G Transportation Patterns and Problems of People with Disabilities Sandra Rosenbloom* INTRODUCTION Transportation is an extremely important policy issue for those with disabilities.
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20 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA these travelers often revolve around dichotomies that may be misleading -- arguing over the role of buses compared with the role of paratransit, for example. Moreover, these debates often focus on some topics at the expense of other equally important issues.
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21 APPENDIX G THE TRAVEL PATTERNS OF PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES In 2000 just over 8 percent of those ages 5 to 20 years, 19.2 percent of those ages 21 to 64 years, and 41.9 percent of those ages 65 years and over reported some level of disability (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002)
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22 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA on the patterns of older drivers facing declining driving skills because of increasing illness or disability. These studies are discussed below.
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2 APPENDIX G who had not used available public transit reported that their failure to do so was related to their impairment or health problem. Among those who ever used public transit, even if rarely, only 13 percent reported difficulty in doing so.
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2 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA On the other hand, the BTS study found that among those with disabilities of any severity, over 70 percent of those ages 25 to 64 and roughly 60 percent of those age 65 and over were currently drivers (Sweeny, 2004, Table A8) (driving status was attributed to those who reported driving; it was not based on licensing status)
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2 APPENDIX G Auto use, often as the driver, was even higher for medical trips among all travelers with disabilities. Among those ages 25 to 64, for example, almost 9 out of 10 travelers reported using a personal vehicle to travel to the doctor and drove that vehicle almost 70 percent of the time.
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2 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA were substantially more likely to be either a driver or a passenger in a personal vehicle than to use buses, paratransit, or taxis. Many drivers, however, did report that they also used a variety of public transit modes, although nondrivers were more likely to report using buses, specialized paratransit modes, and other alternatives.
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2 APPENDIX G older people in every industrial country have become increasingly more dependent on the private car to maintain their mobility (ECMT, 1999; OECD, 2001; Rosenbloom and Stähl, 2003; Gagliardi et al., 2005)
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2 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA TABLE G-3 Types of Driving Self-Regulation by People With and Without Disabilities Percentage of People Type of Self-Regulation With Disabilities Without Disabilities Drive less in bad weather 66.3 49.8 Drive less often than before 64.5 32.2 Avoid driving during peak hours 58.0 42.0 Avoid busy roads and intersections 51.7 40.0 Avoid driving at night 51.5 25.8 Avoid driving distances >100 miles 47.2 21.9 Avoid high-speed highways 38.4 21.8 Avoid unfamiliar roads or places 38.0 27.5 Drive slower than speed limits 22.0 14.9 Avoid left-hand turns 11.4 8.4 NOTE: Multiple responses were permitted; the sample sizes were very small. SOURCE: Table 37, U.S.
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2 APPENDIX G psychological impact associated with the loss of independence" (U.K. Department for Transport, 2003, p.
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0 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA COMMUNITY TRANSPORTATION RESOURCES This section has three subsections that describe the community transportation resources that exist or that should exist: • The accessible transportation services and facilities that are or that should be provided by public transit operators • Those that are or that should be provided by an array of public and private nonprofit organizations • Those that are or that should be provided by the private sector in ordinary market interactions (e.g., on-street taxis and airport shuttles) The discussions below have a dual focus: first, the obligations of these providers under ADA, and second, the much larger arena in which these operators could be providing services to enhance the mobility of those with disabilities.
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1 APPENDIX G There are many public transit modes: buses and trolley buses, heavy and light rail services, commuter rail, ferry boats, vanpools, and carpools. Each of these modes poses unique access and mobility problems for people with disabilities; there are ADA requirements for each mode, but there is also the potential for many modes to provide more mobility to people with disabilities than that mandated by the law.
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2 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA Transit Administration (FTA) recently reported that "only" 96 key stations (14 percent)
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APPENDIX G ably the maintenance and operation of accessible buses in service and the training given drivers to operate key accessibility devices. For much of the first decade after the passage of the ADA, the accessibility features of U.S.
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THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA Second, an increasing number of people use very customized wheelchairs that can test securement systems (Zaworski and Hunter-Zaworski, 2006)
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APPENDIX G propriate assistance from drivers. Some bus operators in the United States and abroad have increased ridership by operating smaller buses, allowing passengers to be closer to the driver, which often reduces the anxiety or fear felt by travelers with disabilities (TCRP, 1999b, 2002b)
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THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA do not have an accessible path to an accessible bus. Paratransit services are not required for those unable to access or use available rail services.
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APPENDIX G TABLE G-4 Complementary Paratransit Cost and Ridership Patterns for People With and Without Disabilities Total Annual Annual Paratransit Paratransit System Paratransit as a % as a % of Ridershipa Ridershipa of Total Operating System and City (in millions) (in millions)
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THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA high. Indeed, total paratransit service expenses are a significant component of total transit system operating costs, even though paratransit riders are a small percentage of the total system ridership.
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APPENDIX G and adhere to very strict rider eligibility guidelines (TCRP, 1998a)
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0 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA At the same time, the enormity of expanding paratransit service to provide rides to the vast number of people with disabilities is shown in Table G-5, which ultimately provides a very conservative estimate of the cost of expanding services to meet the needs of a wider range of people with disabilities. Table G-5 illustrates the costs of responding to the needs of people age 15 years and older with a severe disability in the major city served by each transit agency.
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1 APPENDIX G TABLE G-5 Current Paratransit Service Coverage and Potential Expansion Costs Annual Total Annual No. of Cost to 2004 2004 Rides per 2004 Provide One Annual Average Person Age System RT/Month to Paratransit Cost per 15+ with Paratransit Each Person Ridershipa Paratransit Severe Costs w/a Disability Ridea System and City (in millions)
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2 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA cost-effective transportation measures for those who can use them, such as improving public transit services in the ways suggested above, while facilitating car use by those who do not live in areas where transit services can reasonably be provided. Third, these cost data also indicate the need to augment and strengthen the services of the other community transport providers that, by leveraging the resources of volunteers, can often provide less expensive (but still not cheap)
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APPENDIX G However, the Beverly Foundation report shows that even exemplary systems vary widely in terms of the number of clients served, the accessibility of their vehicles, and overall costs. At one end of the spectrum, a STAR system on a Native American reservation (San Felipe, New Mexico)
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THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA Because these community-based transportation providers are so important to so many travelers -- and have the potential to be even more important in the future -- analysts have suggested a number of ways in which local communities might increase their number and effectiveness, reduce their costs, and ensure that they are able to offer services to those needing accessible vehicles. These suggestions include providing appropriate training to staff or volunteers in a variety of functional areas, from dispatching to dealing with the needs of travelers with significant disabilities.
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APPENDIX G both the national and the state levels to overcome these barriers through greater coordination among the federal agencies that fund transportation services, better information and training on a variety of the issues raised above, and the promotion of both voluntary and mandatory coordination programs. In the last few years there has been a flurry of executive and legislative activity at the national level.
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THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA Some analysts have noted how difficult it is to set up and maintain effective coordinated programs without continuing financial assistance and leadership -- as well as mandates -- from regional or state agencies. The benefits of coordination are often diffused and are accompanied by some additional costs to the agencies involved, even if these additional costs occur only initially (Schlossberg, 2003, 2004)
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APPENDIX G mobility by those with visual impairments, such as audible pedestrian signals at stoplights and detectable warnings at curb ramps. However, in early 2004, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals overturned a lower court ruling that allowed the city of Sacramento, California, to argue that people with disabilities could use special paratransit services if they lacked accessible sidewalks to bus or tram stops.
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THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA (Rosenbloom and Stähl, 2003; NCD, 2004; Kocera et al., 2005; Kihl et al., 2005; AARP, 2006; Herbel et al., 2006, Rosenbloom, 2005; Kochera and Bright, 2005–2006)
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APPENDIX G less lucrative than providing ordinary services -- independent of the cost of the vehicle -- so some taxi drivers avoid passengers with disabilities even if they are operating an accessible taxi. In addition, passengers traveling with service animals often report that they are refused service (see a lengthy discussion of these issues in the report by NCD [2005]
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0 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA a meaningful job may also be the result of inadequate education and training, lack of experience, discrimination in the job market, or inadequate knowledge by employers about the kinds of reasonable accommodations that potential workers with disabilities require. Therefore, transportation services must be viewed and provided only as part of a package of supportive services and policies.
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1 APPENDIX G paratransit services because they fear being stigmatized or they do not believe that the services can or do meet their needs (Žakowska and Monterde, 2003; U.K. Department for Transport, Mobility and Social Inclusion Unit, 2006)
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2 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Research clearly shows that travelers with disabilities face multiple barriers in every mode of travel, although we lack good data by severity of impairment, income, automobile ownership, and a range of socioeconomic characteristics. People with disabilities travel less and report more mobility problems than those without disabilities; moreover, almost 2 million Americans report themselves to be homebound.
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APPENDIX G stations on urban rail systems are yet accessible; even if they were, key stations are only a fraction of all stations in most urban rail systems. Almost all buses are accessible, but barriers to their use are posed by driver training and surveillance problems, as well as maintenance issues.
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Of course, the errors that remain are entirely my responsibility. REFERENCES AARP (American Association of Retired Persons)
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NCHRP Project 9-36, Task 50. Washing ton, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
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AARP Public Policy Institute. Washington, DC: American Association of Retired Persons.
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AARP Public Policy Research Institute. Washington, DC: American Association of Retired Persons.
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THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA Rosenbloom, S., and Stähl, A
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0 THE FUTURE OF DISABILITY IN AMERICA U.K. Department for Transport, Mobility and Social Inclusion Unit.
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