Recognition and Alleviation of Distress in Laboratory Animals (2008) / Chapter Skim
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3 Recognition and Assessment of Stress and Distress
3 Recognition and Assessment of Stress and Distress
Pages 25-62
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. Species-specific normative ranges have been established for many parameters (e.g., hematocrit, blood glucose, body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate)
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The identification of species-typical behavior often comes from ethograms developed by researchers to describe the kinds of behavior that animals display in various settings (Bronson 1979; for more references see Additional References)
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; for example, while females have greater anhedonic and HPA axis responses to chronic mild stress than males, they score lower on tests of behavioral depression caused by chronic stress exposure (Dalla et al.
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, perform identically, or experience and react uniformly to stimuli -- stressful or otherwise. In fact, inbred strains of mice differ in almost every behavioral, sensory, motor, and physiological trait studied to date, such as anxiety, learning and memory, brain structure and size, visual acuity, acoustic startle, exploratory behavior, alcohol sensitivity, depression, pain sensitivity, and motor coordination (Crawley et al.
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axis, as assessed by plasma cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) , increased cerebrospinal fluid levels of the norepinephrine metabolite 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol, heightened sympathetic nervous system activity as reflected in altered heart rate rhythms, and abnormal immune system response (Coe et al.
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In contrast, if female offspring of high licking and grooming dams are instead cross fostered with low licking and grooming (i.e., "poor") mothers, they will subsequently provide little maternal care to their own offspring, resulting in behavioral and physiological changes that persist into adulthood (Francis et al.
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. But because some individuals reared in either condition may be more vulnerable to the development of abnormal behavior than normally reared monkeys, careful observation and ongoing assessments would help guide colony management decisions regarding group composition and enrichment strategies.
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Environments that elicit or enhance stereotypies not as part of defined pathophysiology or disease models are typically suboptimal (Berkson and Mason 1964; for more references see Additional References)
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. Overall, however, the presence of stereotypies should be a cause for concern because animals that exhibit such behavioral patterns may not only have experienced some stress or distress in the past but also live in environments that promote or sustain these abnormal behaviors.
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2002; for more references see Additional References) , while beneficial effects have also been observed in nonhuman primates (Ingram et al.
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Preventing the development of stereotyped behavior by providing the animals with species-specific appropriate environments is obviously desirable and likely to result in improved welfare, especially as enrichment "therapy" may reduce but will not cure the abnormal behavior (van Praag et al. 2000; Wolfer et al.
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In addition to recognizing an animal's normal patterns of behavior, the observer must be well trained and knowledgeable about the normal species-specific behavior in the context of species, strain, gender, and physiological state. Types of behavior commonly explored to investigate the presence of stress include open-field activity, movements in an elevated plus maze, changes in innate behaviors (e.g., movement, grooming, feeding, sexual behavior)
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, and sedation. Unless animals are habituated to blood sampling, the method itself can activate the HPA axis thereby confounding assay results.
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. Other "Stress" Hormones As is the case with the hormones of the HPA axis, stressors alter the secretion of other endocrine factors (e.g., prolactin, growth hormone, luteinizing hormone, α-melanocyte stimulating hormone [α-MSH]
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. For example, telemetry in conscious, unrestrained animals is an effective method for the continuous monitoring of physiologic alterations in heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, ECG, and body temperature (Akutsu et al.
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. CRH may be the key central integrator of the stress response as CRH-containing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus are the primary common path in the neural regulation of both the HPA and autonomic responses to stressors.
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Acute Stress/Distress and Immunity The principles that determine whether acute stressors inhibit or potentiate adaptive immunity are currently unknown. Nevertheless, adaptive immune responses that involve antigen recognition by T cells are invariably affected in acute stress.
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. Assessment of Distress Clinical signs interpreted through relevant animal behavior and physiological states are the most reliable distress measures.
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when any animal unexpectedly shows signs of distress. In the first case, the experimental protocol approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
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. The animal showing signs of distress is then observed more closely followed by gentle handling and examination to measure body weight, body condition and temperature, heart rate, dehydration, and alertness.
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Behav Brain Res 136(2)
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Behav Brain Res 156(1)
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Behav Brain Res 145(1-2)
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Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103(13)
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Behav Brain Res 176(1)
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Brain Res 991:123-132. Olsson, I
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Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103(9)
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:2191-2195. Page 28 In fact, inbred strains of mice differ in almost every behavioral, sensory, motor, and physiological trait studied to date, such as anxiety, learning and memory, brain structure and size, visual acuity, acoustic startle, exploratory behavior, alcohol sensitivity, depression, pain sensitivity, and motor coordination (Crawley et al.
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Behav Brain Res 136(2)
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Behav Brain Res 165(1)
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Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103(52)
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2006. Effect of voluntary wheel running on circadian corticosterone release and on HPA axis responsiveness to restraint stress in Sprague-Daley rats.
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1985. Plasma norepinephrine, epinephrine and corticosterone stress responses to restraint in individual male and female rats, and their correlations.
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Contemp Top Lab Anim 40(5)
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1983. Comparison of stress response in male and female rats: Pituitary cyclic AMP and plasma prolactin, growth hormone and corticosterone.
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1975. Stress response patterns of plasma corticosterone, p rolactin, and growth hormone in the rat, following handling or exposure to novel envi ronment.
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:2416-2422. Page 39 For example, telemetry in conscious, unrestrained animals is an effective method for the continuous monitoring of physiologic alterations in heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, ECG, and body temperature (Akutsu et al.
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2005a. Effects of a cage enrichment program on heart rate, blood pressure, and activity of male Sprague-Dawley and spontaneously hypertensive rats monitored by radiotelemetry.
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