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7 Fossil-Fuel Energy
Pages 331-444

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From page 331...
... These distinctive structures exist because the attributes of liquid, gaseous, and solid fossil fuels closely match the needs of their respective end-use markets: 1Worldwide, the dominance of fossil fuels is little different; they provided 86 percent of world primary energy consumption in 2004. 2Oil and gas are the dominant suppliers of the industrial market, primarily for feedstocks in chemical production.
From page 332...
... Coal is abundant in the United States, is easily stored, and is less expen sive, with lower price volatility than other fuels -- attractive attributes for electricity generation. Although the market-based reasons for using fossil fuels are thus very strong, U.S.
From page 333...
... . By market, the largest source was electric power generation (using coal and natural gas)
From page 334...
... New technologies that may become available for producing the desired form of fossil fuels. The focus in particular is on the generation of electricity from coal and natural gas with sharply reduced emissions of greenhouse gases, especially CO2.
From page 335...
... dAccording to British Petroleum, 2008, discrepancies between world production and consumption "are accounted for by stock changes; consumption of nonpetroleum additives and substitute fuels; and unavoidable disparities in the definition, measurement, or conversion of oil supply and demand data." TABLE 7.3 Natural Gas Resources, Reserves, and Production (trillion cubic feet, variable years as noted)
From page 336...
... known reserves, while considerably smaller than the more speculative estimates of ultimately recoverable resources, is also large. British Petroleum has reported that proved reserves of oil in 2006 amounted to 1390 billion barrels and that proved natural gas reserves were 6263 Tcf (British Petroleum, 2007)
From page 337...
... Faster and more affordable, higher- 2015 Quicker, better, cheaper, could extend the already definition 3D seismic impressive "specialized" technology in universal use. Source: NPC , 2007, Topic Paper 19, "Conventional Oil and Gas," Table V.1.
From page 338...
... Here again, there is considerable uncertainty because of costs and other limita tions, such as access to drilling or mining and environmental impacts. The resources listed in Table 7.6 for light oil enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
From page 339...
... b 71 10–20 <2020 Reserve growth (EOR) b 40 20–45 2020–2035 Tar sandsb 10 40–95 >2035 Oil shalese 500 40–95 >2035 aBritish Petroleum, 2008.
From page 340...
... The technically recoverable Canadian resource is estimated at 173 billion barrels (RAND, 2008) , and the EIA projects production rates of 2.1–3.6 million barrels per day in 2020 and 4 million barrels per day in 2030, depending on oil price.
From page 341...
... Also, current cost estimates for shale oil recovery are not well defined. In the absence of CO2 capture and storage, production of oil either by enhanced oil recovery methods or by conversion from tar sands or oil shales emits more CO2 than does conventional oil production.
From page 342...
... . The expansion of CO2 EOR is technically feasible, but it will depend on the availability of signifi cant additional quantities of CO2 (see the discussion on carbon cap ture from power plants, for example, elsewhere in this chapter)
From page 343...
... , it appears that appropriate development is under way.1 The critical technology need in oil production is the ability to manage fluids in complex underground reservoirs. These fluids involved are both the crude oil itself and materials such as CO2 that are used in enhanced oil recovery.
From page 344...
... . Although predicting the level of domestic production that results from the confluence of these factors could be considered speculative, the EIA has estimated how oil production might be affected by changes in them.
From page 345...
... According to an NPC review of estimates for 2030, world oil production could range from 90 to 120 million barrels per day, as compared with about 85 million barrels 9Other publicly available projections are consistent with these EIA estimates. See, for exam ple, IEA (2008a)
From page 346...
... natural gas resources. Significant conventional gas resources are located both offshore and onshore, although much of the offshore resource is in deep water.
From page 347...
... . Producing from these formations does require advanced technology, though many of the methods being developed for oil production also are useful for natural gas production.
From page 348...
... However, it appears that at the lower end of the recent natural gas price range the production of gas shales and perhaps of some deepwater offshore resources is not economic. At the high end of the range, the private sec tor seems willing to invest in all of these types of gas resources.
From page 349...
... According to these EIA estimates, maintaining domestic natural gas production, much less raising it above current levels, is challenging. However, resources in the OCS and new gas shale formations may have a significant upside production potential.
From page 350...
... 12Recent prices in Japan have also been influenced by shutdowns of nuclear power plants pending review of earthquake safety. It is not clear how long these shutdowns will continue and what the natural gas price will be if demand for natural gas for electric power generation in Japan declines as a result of nuclear power plants going back on line.
From page 351...
... ; and U.S. oil production was 6.9 million barrels per day (including natural gas liquids)
From page 352...
... These estimated gas resources are in addition to those listed in Table 7.8. The estimated oil resources in Table 7.11 are included, however, in the estimates of Table 7.6.
From page 353...
... oil production in the next decade. For example, in its 2008 reference case, the EIA projects that deepwater Gulf of Mexico conventional oil production will increase from about 1 million barrels per day in 2006 to a peak of 2 million barrels per day sometime between 2013 and 2019, declining thereafter to 1.6 million barrels per day in 2030 (EIA, 2008a, p.
From page 354...
... While any additional oil production has some impact on oil price, as well as an obvious impact on the amount of oil imported into the United States, most observers have argued that the impact on oil price of net incremental U.S. produc tion due to the opening of restricted areas will be small.
From page 355...
... In addition to the OCS and federal land resources discussed in this section, the increased interest in natural gas production from shale formations may create a need to balance energy and environmental values regarding this resource. Large shale formations in the mid-Continent and the Gulf Coast (e.g., Barnett and Haynesville)
From page 356...
... However, of all the fossil fuels, coal produces the largest amount of CO2 per unit of energy released by combustion -- about twice the emissions of natural gas, but can vary depending on coal rank -- and mining has significant environmental impacts, which will limit its suitability for some locations. In any case, the estimates in Table 7.12 suggest that resource availability is not likely to be the constraint that sets the level of coal use.
From page 357...
... Crude oil production from Canadian tar sands is feasible now and likely to grow before 2020, but this resource has a larger carbon footprint than conventional resources have. Canadian tar sands production was 1.3 million barrels per day of crude oil in 2006, and it could grow to 4 million barrels per day by 2030.
From page 358...
... Growth in demand for electricity from coal-fired power plants, potential use of coal for producing liquid and gaseous fuels, the cost of opening new mines, and growth in export markets are examples of such pressures. ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION WITH FOSSIL FUELS Background on Electricity Generation and Carbon Dioxide Emissions According to the EIA, U.S.
From page 359...
... They must invest in new power-generation assets to meet future demands for electricity and to replace some portion of the existing fleet of power plants as they are retired, but they must also consider what will happen if constraints ing relatively stable energy conditions; given the recent turmoil in energy and financial markets, the uncertainty range is now presumably larger.
From page 360...
... Meanwhile, although capital costs for natural gas plants are a fraction of those for coal or nuclear plants, the price of natural gas has increased substantially above historic levels and has shown some of the volatility of recent oil prices. Thus, the best choices among options for generating electricity are not at all clear at present.
From page 361...
... In particular, whether coal plays a larger or a smaller role in future electric power generation will depend strongly on whether CCS can be applied at the scale of many large power plants. To examine these questions, the committee considers below three types of power plants: supercritical pulverized coal (PC)
From page 362...
... Efficiency improvements of 1–3 percent are also possible through mod ernization at existing coal plants, but the required capital investment may not be attractive given other priorities. A succinct discussion of these and other variations for gasification without coal.
From page 363...
... (See Annex 7.A for a description of some of the processes used to capture CO2 from power plant combustion-product gases.) The second approach, IGCC, is a technology for electricity generation that produces gas from coal to drive a high-efficiency gas turbine, whose hot exhaust then drives a smaller steam cycle similar to that of PC.
From page 364...
... In that case, the combustion products from electric power generation are CO2 and water, plus small amounts of contaminants. In effect, the cost of air separation at the front end to produce O2 for combustion is traded off against the cost of separation of CO2 from N2 at the back end.
From page 365...
... The options for CO2 capture at an NGCC plant parallel those for coal plants. The remainder of this section focuses on PC, IGCC, and NGCC plants to illustrate the range of costs of electricity with and without CCS.
From page 366...
... At present, coal and nuclear power plants typically provide a larger fraction of the power generated at night, when peaking natural gas turbines are less likely to be in use. Nuclear plants are generally run at steady power output, while coal plants allow some downward adjustment of power levels at night.
From page 367...
... A discussion of the complexities of how CCS might be implemented in the context of the existing fleet of coal power plants is beyond the scope of this report, but it is nevertheless a subject that merits further study.
From page 368...
... Engineering analyses that accurately establish the shape of this marginal cost curve for specific capture technologies are now entering the public domain.19 CO2 emissions reductions at existing power plants via improved energy effi ciency may be realized through a wide variety of upgrades of equipment, espe cially if the plant is relatively old and inefficient to begin with. The cost curve for small emission reductions will show steps corresponding to opportunities 19A recent study by the DOE's National Energy Technology Laboratory suggests a linear re lationship between cost and percent capture when current post-combustion amine-capture tech nology is used.
From page 369...
... Capture-Ready The uncertainty about the scope and stringency of future U.S. policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, as well as the high cost of retrofits, has led to a discussion of whether it makes sense for new coal plants in the interim to be built "capture-ready," in other words, capable of being economically retrofitted with CCS in the future.
From page 370...
... The cost of the Nth 21Capital costs for the components of natural gas and coal power plants in the NETL report were adopted by PEI without change, except for escalating capital costs from the end of 2006 to mid-2007. PEI then modified NETL results by using different financing assumptions (see Elecric Power Research Institute -- Technical Assessment Guide [EPRI-TAG]
From page 371...
... , but results for two natural gas prices are also shown ($6/GJ or $6.33/million Btu HHV, and $16/GJ, or $16.88/million Btu HHV) to illustrate how strongly the competitiveness of natural gas plants depends on fuel price.
From page 372...
... (The percentages are different for the LCOE numbers, because (1) capital costs contribute only 80 percent or less to LCOE, and (2)
From page 373...
... is estimated to be about a third of the capital costs of the coal plants. The IGCC plant is estimated to be about 15 percent, or $240/kW, more expensive than the supercritical PC plant.
From page 374...
... power plants are not included in the capital costs estimates, although some may be accounted for in computing levelized costs per kWh. These components may include the following: • Additional project contingency and risk.
From page 375...
... In a tight construction environment, the profit included in an estimate is minimized in order to secure work flow and maintain engineering and construction management capabilities in-house; in an expansive environment, beyond that assumed in the PEI estimates, profit margins can be considerable, some 5–10 percent of the job cost. In addition to these project costs that may be appropriate in various cost environments, there are different accounting protocols for stating capital costs that may lead to apparent differences in plant cost estimates.
From page 376...
... ; assuming a 4 percent annual escalation rate (specified in the project's front-end engineering and design study) but no additional capital cost escalation; and using a weighted nominal interest rate for calculating AFDC (before-tax weighted cost of capital, adding 3 percent per year on equity return as an owner's risk premium -- essentially the same interest rate assumed by PEI)
From page 377...
... study -- the values of LCOE for the NGCC and PC plants are about the same as for non-CCS plants, whereas for CCS plants, the LCOE of the NGCC and IGCC plants are about the same. However, for natural gas at $16.00/GJ, or $16.88/million Btu,25 the LCOE for every NGCC plant is much higher than that of any coal plant.
From page 378...
... A rising CO2 price would therefore stimulate the introduction of CCS first at IGCC plants. Figure 7.6 shows how a CO2 price of $50 per tonne affects the estimated LCOE of the various power plants.
From page 379...
... Because the fraction of LCOE attributable to capital cost varies with the fuel and plant types, the percentage change in LCOE also varies. Table 7.15 shows that the cost of electricity is more sensitive to capital cost variations in coal plants than in natural gas plants, for which fuel cost accounts for a greater fraction of LCOE.
From page 380...
... The options for CO2 capture at an NGCC plant parallel those for coal plants. CO2 is available for capture in the stack after burning the natural gas in air, although at a much more dilute concen tration (at today's power plants, typically 3–5 percent instead of 12–15 percent)
From page 381...
... for coal power plants, as shown in Figures 7.5 and 7.6, provide a starting point for estimating the contribution of fossil-fuel power plants to future U.S. electric power generation.
From page 382...
... This is about one-third faster than the rate at which baseload coal power was intro duced in the United States in the 1970s, a peak period of construction of U.S. coal power.28 The committee's view of the maximum pace of introduction of new power plants with CCS, assuming a strong policy driver, is presented here.
From page 383...
... 4. In parallel with the construction of new coal-CCS plants, there will be coal plant retirements and there may also be retrofit and repowering of older coal plants.
From page 384...
... power mix could be expanded over the succeeding two or three decades, with the installed capacity of coal plants with CCS becoming comparable to that of current U.S. coal power, if not considerably larger.
From page 385...
... Photosynthesis is the source of the stored energy and carbon in both cases, but for fossil fuels the storage occurred millions of years ago. The committee considers here the prospect of large biomass power plants and, as for fossil-fuel power plants discussed earlier, we consider plants with and without CCS.
From page 386...
... The power plants with biomass feedstock have approximately the same capital costs as the corresponding coal plants. A BTP plant would be less costly than a coal gasification plant of the same size would be because less oxygen is needed for biomass gasification (biomass, already containing oxygen, is much more reactive than is coal)
From page 387...
... carbon by weight, 470,000 tonnes of carbon are in the annual input of switch grass, as photosynthesis and respiration in the switchgrass has removed a net of 1.72 million tonnes CO2 per year from the atmosphere.30 As part of the gasifica tion process, roughly 10 percent of the carbon in the switchgrass is assumed to be trapped in char -- a solid waste product -- assumed to remain unoxidized forever in a landfill. The carbon not in the char is oxidized to CO2 and vented to the atmo sphere whence it came, an annual CO2 emission of 1.55 million tonnes CO2 per year.
From page 388...
... . Source: Princeton Environmental Institute.
From page 389...
... Taking into account the storage of captured CO2, char storage, storage in soil and roots, and fossil-carbon inputs, the BTP-CCS plant actually removes 1.39 million tonnes CO2 per year from the atmo sphere. A 253 MW plant operating with an 85 percent power capacity produces 1.88 TWh per year, which can be restated as an intensity of CO2 removal from the atmosphere: 740 g CO2 per kWh.
From page 390...
... By contrast, in Figure 7.9, where the CO2 emissions price is $50 per tonne CO2, the two BTP plants have become competitive with the NGCC-V plant with low-priced natural gas, and they are less costly than the coal plants. The absence of a visible CO2 emissions component to the BTP-V bar reflects its nearly carbon neutral character, discussed previously.
From page 391...
... Supply Curves and Power Plant Mixes in 2020 and 203531 "Supply curves," such as the ones shown in Figures 7.10 and 7.11, are ways of ordering different technologies by estimated cost while simultaneously showing 31This section does not consider the biomass-to-power plants discussed in the previous section.
From page 392...
... (Retrofits of existing coal plants, which would raise the cost of their power, are not included.) Maxi mum penetration rates for new plants are assumed, as discussed in the section below titled "Future Coal Power"; the cost of power from new plants is approxi mately that shown in Figures 7.5 and 7.6; and the same high natural gas price as in Figure 7.10 is assumed.
From page 393...
... New coal plants without CCS do not appear in Figure 7.11 at all for the $100 per tonne CO2 case. Figures 7.10 and 7.11 present national supply curves and national emissions, without taking into account state laws, regulations, and initiatives.
From page 394...
... The same high natural gas prices as in Figure 7.10 are assumed, suc cessful CCS is assumed, and penetration rates of new coal plants are those discussed in the section titled "Future Coal Power." The committee assigns a ±10–25 percent uncer tainty range to the vertical axis and a ±25 percent uncertainty to the horizontal axis. Constitution, it is probable that state actions will influence national supply curves to some extent.
From page 395...
... Significant increases in capital costs, the form of potential regulation of CO2 emissions, other licensing and regulatory issues, and the low availability of financing have made the construction of new coal-fired power plants less attractive. By contrast, the situation for new natural gas power plants appears favorable; they have lower construction cost, shorter construction time, and reduced environmental impact.
From page 396...
... GEOLOGIC STORAGE OF CO2 Potential Storage Sites If significant quantities of captured CO2 are to be stored, many subsurface loca tions will have to be found. Three principal storage settings are being considered: oil and gas reservoirs, deep formations that contain salt water, and coal beds too deep to be mined.
From page 397...
... It uses CO2 separated from natural gas, as does a similar project at Rangely, Colorado. Numerous other EOR projects are currently under way in west Texas; they inject about 28 million tonnes per year, though mainly they use naturally occurring CO2 that is brought by pipelines from Colorado and New Mexico.
From page 398...
... Number of Projects, if >1 Area with Multiple Projects 1000 KM Scale at Equator FIGURE 7.12 CO2 injection projects worldwide. Note: ECBM = enhanced coal bed methane; EGR = enhanced gas recovery; EOR = enhanced oil recovery.
From page 399...
... By Capacity (Megawatts) 0-250 Oil and Gas Fields Saline Aquifers 251-1000 Coal Beds 1001-4000 Total Coal-Fired Capacity = 330 Gigawatts FIGURE 7.13 Locations of coal-fired power plants and potential subsurface formations that could be used for geologic storage of CO2.
From page 400...
... An indication of the very large scale of operation that might be required is provided by the emissions of a large coal-fired power plant. A 1000 MW coal plant will emit about 6 million tonnes of CO2 per year.
From page 401...
... Thus combined EOR and CO2 storage has the potential to lead to a significant expansion of EOR production from the 200,000 barrels per day produced now. Findings: Geologic Storage Long-term geologic storage of carbon dioxide appears to be technologically feasible, but it has yet to be demonstrated at the scale of a large power plant in a variety of geologic repositories.
From page 402...
... Source: Dooley et al., 2006. Significant expansion of domestic oil production via enhanced oil recovery could result from a price on CO2.
From page 403...
... , and because the National Research Council has released a report on energy externalities,34 the AEF Committee does not repeat this work here. From time to time, the well-studied impacts and the regulations under which they fall are summarized -- e.g., in the environmental sections of the Encyclopedia of Energy (2004)
From page 404...
... ; the reports of the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) on coal power (www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/)
From page 405...
... Still, the question arises as to whether or not existing laws, regulations, and enforcement capabilities will be sufficient to handle, both from a substantive and a public-perception viewpoint, the changes that may be coming over the next few decades within the fossil-fuels system. In principle, a complex set of regulations that cover the use of fossil fuels is in place or can be changed to guide future fossil-fuel development.
From page 406...
... While natural gas–based electricity generation is already attractive for reasons spelled out in the section above titled "The Competitiveness of Natural Gas," the lack of regulations that would provide a greater incentive to mitigate CO2 emis sions, as well as great uncertainties about the cost of CCS, further discourages investment in coal plants. In the CO2 context, there may be lessons to be learned from reviewing the strengths and limitations of regulations of other air pollutants.
From page 407...
... The creation of a regulatory framework for geologic CO2 storage is currently beginning, and there is also considerable experience with injecting CO2 into oil formations for enhanced oil recovery, which has been regulated under rules for oil and gas production. Testing of geologic storage of CO2 can be done under existing regulatory frameworks, but large-scale implementation will require significant further development.
From page 408...
... Environmental Management of Oil Shale and Tar Sands In addition to greater CO2 emissions per unit of oil output from oil shale, there are environmental issues related to surface mining or in situ processing, including water management. Although Canada has a much larger tar sand resource than 41Environmental groups (e.g., www.sierraclub.org/MTR/downloads/brochure.pdf)
From page 409...
... Land and energy requirements are very high. Government lands that will be made available for oil shale and tar sands leasing in the United States have not yet been selected (BLM, 2007a)
From page 410...
... Power plants of nearly all types require water for a variety of uses within the plant. In addition, for fossil-fuel plants, including coal-fired IGCC plants, water is required in the extraction and processing of the fuels.
From page 411...
... 2007a. Draft Oil Shale and Tar Sands Resource Management Plan (RMP)
From page 412...
... 2007. Carbon Capture from Existing Coal-Fired Power Plants.
From page 413...
... 2003. A geochemical perspective and assessment of leakage potential for a mature carbon dioxide–enhanced oil recovery project and as a prototype for carbon dioxide sequestration; Rangely Field, Colorado.
From page 414...
... 2007b. Policy Brief: Regulation of Carbon Capture and Storage.
From page 415...
... Table 7.A.1 breaks down the resource base and reserve-to-production ratios by region. It shows that better than 65 percent of the world's conventional crude oil resources are concentrated in the Middle East, in non-OECD Europe (mostly in the Russian Federation)
From page 416...
... Globally, the reserve-to-production ratio for natural gas is around 60, while for the United States it is 11 (British Petroleum, 2006)
From page 417...
... . Despite the uncertainties, the hydrate resource estimates are very large compared to natural gas reserves and production, though as with all estimates of a total resource, the amounts recovered at economically viable costs could be much lower.
From page 418...
... 2020. Electric Power Generation Because extensive analyses of technologies for generating electricity from coal have been published (see, for example, MIT, 2007; IPCC, 2005; and NETL, 2007a)
From page 419...
... . Air-Blown Pulverized Coal Power Plants Current coal plants burn air-blown pulverized coal (PC)
From page 420...
... is equivalent to the output of the plant run ning at its full capacity for 7446 instead of 8760 hours per year. Even a baseload power plant has less than 100 percent capacity factor because it is shut down occasionally for maintenance and because at some times (e.g., when power is very inexpensive)
From page 421...
... The crossover price of CO2 for the LCOE is about $70 per tonne CO2, somewhat above the $50 per tonne CO2 price whose associated cost estimates are reported in Figure 7.6. For IGCC plants, however, both the dispatch cost and the LCOE for the venting plant are higher than for the CCS plant at $35 per tonne CO2.
From page 422...
... Biomass may be co-fired with coal or petcoke, but to gasify a combination in which biomass represents a significant fraction of the total thermal input, there may need to be a separate biomass gasifier with its own feed-handling strategies. CO2 capture from natural-gas-fired power plants can be accomplished using any of the three strategies.
From page 423...
... , the CO2 separation must be performed in order to make the product; thus the incremental cost of separation is zero. In others (electric power generation or cement, iron, or steel production)
From page 424...
... is transported by pipe line for injection at the Weyburn Field in Saskatchewan in a project that combines enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and CO2 storage.
From page 425...
... Uncertainties in the Mix of New Coal Versus Natural Gas Generation The uncertainties associated with building new coal plants (outlined in the section titled "Future Coal Power") and those for natural gas electric power generation (outlined in the section titled "The Competiveness of Natural Gas")
From page 426...
... All of these factors and their inherent uncertainties will influence the future mix of new coal and natural gas electric power generation, and the uncertainties make it unlikely that precise forecasts of the energy mix made now will be accurate. Assumptions Used in Developing Electricity Supply Curves Here the committee provides more detail on the assumptions behind the supply curves in Figures 7.10 and 7.11 in particular and behind supply curves in general.
From page 427...
... 4. Either the retirement rate at existing coal plants is negligible, or it is 3 percent per year after 2020.
From page 428...
... The results for 2020, presented in Figure 7.10, show a typical staircase sup ply curve that highlights the large disparity between the costs of existing coal plants and those of other fossil-fueled electricity technologies, should coal prices remain low. Note that the consumption of electricity is determined by the inter section of the supply curve with a downward-sloping demand curve (not shown)
From page 429...
... Indeed, if total demand for fossil fuel in 2035 were the same as today, the mix of coal and natural gas in power production would shift toward coal because new coal plants outcom pete existing natural gas plants, given the assumed high price of natural gas and the absence of a price on CO2 emissions. The curve labeled "High-Cost Coal, $100/Tonne CO2 Fee" in Figure 7.A.2
From page 430...
... For pulverized-coal plants, steady improvements in materials are projected to enable higher boiler and turbine temperatures and pressures; improvements in oxygen separation and post-combustion gas-separation membranes could enable ultrasupercritical designs with post-combustion CCS to be demonstrated at scale
From page 431...
... by 2025. For integrated gasification combined-cycle plants, improved gasifiers, precombustion gas-separation technologies, hydrogen turbine developments, and chilled ammonia methods of carbon capture could enable IGCC plants with CCS to be demonstrated by 2025.
From page 432...
... IGCC) reach 33-35% HHV reach 43-45% HHV Completion of 5 MWt Completion of DOE Completion of DOE Commercial availability of CO2 Regional Partnerships Regional Partnerships chilled ammonia pilot storage; new coal plants deployment phase (PC + CO2 capture)
From page 433...
... . Varying amounts of Produced Oil or Gas 1 Depleted Oil and Gas Reservoirs 2 Use of CO2 in Enhanced Oil and Gas Recovery Injected CO2 3 Deep Saline Formations – (a)
From page 434...
... Storage in saline formations and coal beds will also require seal formations above the storage formation that prevent vertical migration of the CO2 to the surface. Appropri ate sites will have to be selected that have sufficient pore space available and that have rock properties that allow the CO2 to be injected at a reasonable rate.
From page 435...
... Dooley et al. estimated costs of minus $18 to plus $12 per tonne CO2 for saline aquifer, EOR, and enhanced coal bed methane-injection projects, with the negative- and low-cost estimates applicable when cost recovery through sale of hydrocarbons is possible.
From page 436...
... While similar prin ciples apply to injection of CO2 into gas reservoirs, experience there is much more limited because the combination of gas prices and CO2 costs has not favored enhanced gas recovery using CO2. A test is currently under way, however, in the K12B gas reservoir in the Netherlands (IPCC, 2002)
From page 437...
... Over its lifetime, the Weyburn Field project will inject about one-third of the concurrent CO2 output of a 1000 MW coal plant. Other currently active EOR projects using CO2 from natural underground sources have original-oil-in-place volumes ranging from about 40 million to 2 billion barrels and CO2 injection rates of 50–100 million cubic feet per day (3000–5000 tonnes CO2 per day)
From page 438...
... In 2005 coal-bed methane production was 1.7 Tcf, about 9 percent of U.S. natural gas production (http://tonto.eia.doe.
From page 439...
... Nontechnical Issues with CCS Whichever of the three main options are used, significant regulatory issues will have to be addressed if geologic storage is to be undertaken on a large scale. These issues include long-term ownership of the CO2, liability exposures over time, requirements for the monitoring of storage sites, and regulations for safe operation.
From page 440...
... Friedmann, presentation at the AEF Committee's fossil fuels workshop, 2008. existence of appropriate barriers to vertical flow, and the absence of likely leak paths.
From page 441...
... 2004. Prospects for carbon capture and storage technolo gies.
From page 442...
... 2008. Regulation of Carbon Capture and Storage.
From page 443...
... 2007. Sustaining fossil fuel use in a carbon-con strained world by rapid commercialization of carbon capture and sequestration.


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