America's Energy Future Technology and Transformation (2009) / Chapter Skim
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From page 685... ...
See also Biofuels; 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, Cellulosic ethanol; Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid 195, 258, 263-267 fuels; Coal-to-liquid fuels; Corn ethanol; Light infrastructure for distribution, 90, 93, 221, 223, duty vehicles 224, 226, 251-252, 253, 254, 256, 259, 260, barriers to deployment, 93-94, 250-252 263 biochemical conversion, 67, 90-91, 93, 219, methanol, 72, 94, 226, 258-259, 262 220-225, 234, 235-236, 237, 238, 241-242, panel report, 31, 81 243, 244-245, 247, 248-249, 251, 252, 253, petroleum substitution potential, 73, 212, 245, 256-258 265-267 carbon capture and storage, 4, 5, 64, 65, 66, 72, public policies and, 252, 264-265 73, 78, 94, 212, 220, 224-225, 226, 227, 228, RD&D, 74-75, 221, 247, 255, 265, 267 229-230, 231-233, 236, 237-238, 239, 250-251 685
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From page 686... ...
See Consumer behavior energy-efficiency standards, 154 n.13, 192, 193- Biobutanol, 89, 213, 220, 221, 253-254 194, 197, 198, 200 Biochemical conversion of fuel energy savings, 41, 193-194 air emissions, 248-249 improvements in, 142 biobutanol, 253 information availability, 87-88 carbon capture and storage, 220, 224-225, 236, lifespan, 141 237-238 load management technologies, 84, 153, 585, 597, cellulosic ethanol, 67, 90-91, 93, 221-225, 234, 605-606, 617, 630 235-236, 237, 244-245, 251 manufacturing, 175 corn ethanol, 90, 91, 219-220, 234, 241-242 in new homes, 137, 151 costs, 90, 92-93, 222, 223, 224, 234, 237, 238, potential savings, 146, 147, 148 241, 251, 252 R&D, 194-195 findings, 224-225 remanufactured, 185 genomics applications, 225, 256-257 tax credits, 195 and greenhouse gases, 90, 222, 224-225, 234, wood-burning, 322 248-249 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 344, 345, 351, 354, metabolic and bioprocess engineering applications, 355 256, 257-258 Argonne National Laboratory, 163, 370 n.21, 388, plant siting, 247-248 523 n.19 process, 220-225 Arsenic, 249 RD&D, 90, 221-222, 224 Australia, 20, 286, 485, 486, 535, 538, 540 supply of fuel from, 90-91, 241-242, 243, 244-245 Automotive Energy Supply joint venture, 163 synthetic biology applications, 257
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From page 687... ...
See also Biochemical conversion; Biomass; greenhouse gas emissions, 71, 91, 212, 227, 234, Biomass-to-liquid fuels; Cellulosic ethanol; Coal 237-238, 239 and-biomass-to-liquid fuels; Corn ethanol R&D, 217-218 advanced, 66, 221, 224-225 supply of fuel from, 37, 241-242, 243, 244-245 algal biodiesel, 75, 89, 252-253 thermochemical conversion, 91, 226, 227, 228, bacteria- and yeast-based direct routes to, 255-256 229, 232, 239-240 biobutanol, 89, 213, 220, 221, 253-254 Biopower from CO2 feedstocks, 74-75 build time, 128 consumption, 21, 37 capacity, 128, 390-391 greenhouse gas emissions, 212, 213, 224-225 carbon balance, 69, 288, 386-390 hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4, 225, 254-255 co-firing with coal, 361-362 n.15, 391 potential of, 66, 73, 212, 245 cost estimates, 57, 58, 126, 294-295, 390 production strategy, 247-248 defined, 287-288 R&D, 74-75, 221-222, 224 employment, 304 Biomass environmental impacts, 101, 288, 302 carbon issues, 72, 221, 229 feedstock supply, 32, 287-288, 289, 299 co-fed coal, see Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuel landfill gas fuel, 97, 272 n.2, 287, 288, 387 consumption, 17, 18, 332 land-use values, 301 cost of energy from, 58 market share, 304 on CRP lands, 89, 214, 215, 218, 234 municipal solid waste fuel, 89, 97, 213-214, 217, diesel fuel components, 255 235, 235, 272, 273, 287 distance from conversion plant, 215-216, 217 oxygen-blown gasification, 288-289, 386, 419, 421 electricity generation, see Biopower policies, 273 environmental impacts of crops, 248 pretreatment step, 221, 222, 224, 288-289, 251, 288 findings, 217-218 prospects, 299, 385-391 food/feed crop displacement, 89, 213, 217, 233, readiness for deployment, 291, 317 289, 299 sources, 97, 235, 272 n.2 gasification technologies, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, supply of electricity, 36, 51, 271-272, 288, 316, 361-362 n.15, 386, 422 317, 385-386 gasoline blend stock, 254-255 technology description, 97, 287-289 greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72, 212 wood-based, 97, 272 n.2, 288 hydrocarbon fuels from, 254-255 Biotechnology, 4, 254, 255-258 incentives for growers, 89-90, 216-217, 218 Brazil, 20 industrial use, 17, 180 British Petroleum, 254, 336 non-electricity applications, 32, 321-322 Buildings sector. See also Appliances; Commercial; price delivered to conversion plant, 215 Residential supply, 32, 37, 66, 77, 89-90, 211, 213-217, 221, advanced technologies, 83-84, 149-152, 155 229-230, 233, 235 barriers to improving energy efficiency, 77, 152 sustainable production, 89, 214-215, 217-218 154, 155 systems approach to production, 216-217
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From page 688... ...
, administration, 26, 458 n.34, 461, combined heat and power production, 83, 144, 155 470, 492, 510 conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83, 140, 144, Business-as-usual reference case, xi, 36 145-149 alternative transportation fuels, 93-94, 247 consumption of energy, 2, 14, 83, 137, 139, buildings sector, 2, 141, 145-146 141-142 CO2 emissions, 2, 11 cooling and heating systems, 14, 41, 47, 83, 145, 149, 150, 193 deployment of technologies, 93-94 cost-effectiveness of improvements, 41, 148, 155 energy efficiency improvement, 2, 141, 145-146, cost of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49, 145, 177, 178-179, 186 146-148, 149 energy supply and consumption, 12, 36 drivers for improving, 84, 154, 155 fossil fuels, 11 electricity consumption, 41, 42, 47, 139, 141, 146- industrial sector, 2, 141, 177, 186 147, 155 nuclear power, 446-447 electricity generation capacity, 154-155 transmission and distribution system, 635 end-use and technology approach, 145, 150 transportation sector, 2, 141, 247 energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88, 146, 153, 154, 192, 194, 198, 199, 200, 201, 319 energy efficiency, 2, 38-39 n.1, 40-41, 42, 47-49, 87-88, 136-137, 140, 141-155, 193, 194, 195, C 197 energy intensity, 141-142 California findings, 2, 47-49, 154-155 air emission standards, 263, 393-394, 404 integrated (whole-building) approaches, 84, 143- electricity demand, 617 144, 145, 149-152, 155 electricity T&D, 567, 581 n.22, 617 lighting, 47, 50, 83, 84, 142, 143-144, 146, 147, energy efficiency standards, 191, 193, 196, 198, 149, 150-151, 153, 154 n.12, 155, 193, 194, 199-200 195, 197 geologic storage of CO2, 340 limitations of studies, 143, 155 nuclear power, 481 n.82, 531 natural gas consumption, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 41, Canada 48-49, 139, 146-147, 155, 259, 331 carbon capture and storage, 424 payback period for technologies, 82, 148, 153 crude oil resources, 416 petroleum consumption, 17, 24, 139 electricity T&D interconnections, 567, 573 potential energy savings, 47-49, 50, 83, 143-145, methane hydrate mining, 418 155 natural gas exports, 15, 102-103, 336 n.3, 346 projected energy demand, 41, 42 nuclear power, 507 RD&D, 150, 197 tar sand resources, 340, 408-409 reference case, 141, 145-146 uranium resources, 485, 538 regulatory policies, 87, 152-153 Cap and trade programs, 38 n.1, 189, 252, 393-394, retail price of energy, 47-48, 83, 148, 149, 152 406 services for improving energy efficiency, 153-154 Carbon accounting, 230, 251, 368, 387-388 stock of buildings, 141 Carbon capture and storage (CCS)
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From page 689... ...
emissions, 68 424 biochemical conversion processes, 234 costs, 52, 67, 91, 212, 227-230, 360, 364, 368, cap and trade programs, 38 n.1, 189, 393-394, 406 369-370, 434-435 carbon prices, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93, 234, 237, 238, and costs of electricity, 16, 425 239-240, 244, 252, 371, 406 demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 39, by energy source, 72 51-52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108- negative, 69, 71, 72, 91, 227, 230, 232, 237, 238, 109, 212, 225, 227, 228, 230, 232-233, 250- 362, 389, 391, 395 251, 361, 360, 365, 378, 382-383, 397, 398, policies and regulations, 33, 52, 252, 361 431, 432 timeframe for reducing, 68, 71 energy requirements, 367 trends, 11 environmental issues, 406-407 Carbon dioxide feedstock, 75 findings, 5, 39, 231-233 Carbon dioxide injection for enhanced oil recovery, and greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72, 300 91, 224, 227, 338-340, 341, 342, 343, 396, importance, 30, 92, 300 397, 398, 401, 402, 407, 424, 435-437 industrial sector, 183 Carbon price/taxes, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93, 105, 234, 237, infrastructure, 339 238, 239-240, 244, 252, 371, 378, 390, 402, NCGG plants, 365 406 nontechnical issues, 439-441 Carter administration, 26, 458 n.34 oxygen-blown gasification, 288-289, 386, 419, 421 Cellulosic ethanol oxygen production, 423-424 barriers to deployment, 250, 251 parallel programs, 225 capacity build, 244-245 partial capture, 368-369 carbon capture and storage, 5, 65, 66, 224-225, pipelines for CO2, 60, 109, 339, 368, 377 n.24, 236, 237-238 commercial development, 221-222, 224, 251 382, 396, 397, 402, 406-407, 419, 420-421, conversion technologies, 3, 67, 89, 90-91, 93, 221 435, 439 225, 234, 235-236, 237, 244-245, 251 policy environment, 230, 251, 368, 382 costs, 92-93, 125, 127, 222-223, 224, 237-238, R&D, 107-108, 364-365, 431-432 240, 251 retrofitting plants for, 3, 5, 51, 53-54, 69-70, 72, deployment, 92-93, 125, 127, 222, 244-245 104, 105, 367, 369, 381-382, 383, 384, 392, economic competitiveness, 66, 67, 92-93 395 environmental impacts, 248 safety issues, 16, 212, 406-407, 436 feedstock, 4, 213-217, 222-223 siting, 439-440 greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 66, 71-72, 213, 224 status, 16, 39 225, 236, 238, 239 strategies, 74, 421-426 infrastructure issues, 221, 223-224, 225, 251-252, thermochemical conversion of biofuels and, 74, 254 91-92, 94, 226, 227, 228, 229-230, 231-233, petroleum replacement potential, 3-4, 63, 66, 90, 250-251 91, 221-222 Carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1, 189, 244, 393-394, 406. production capacity, 90-91, 244-245 See also Cap and trade; Carbon price RD&D, 6, 64, 74, 221-222, 224
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From page 690... ...
, 66, 336, 355 Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, 404 pulverized coal (PC) plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, Clean-Fuel Fleet Program, 261 128, 228, 361-365, 366, 367, 369-379, 380, Clean Water Act, 405, 539 381, 382, 383-385, 387, 388, 389, 395, 406 Climate change, 11 n.3, 25 407, 419, 420, 425, 428, 430, 432 Clinton administration, 26, 458 n.34 RD&D, 6, 64, 74, 221-222, 224, 430-441 Clostridium beijernickii BA101, 253 reserves and resources, 16, 89, 92, 218-219, 336, Coal 355-356, 357, 358 air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, retirement of plants, 69, 105, 381, 382, 383, 394 361-365, 366, 369-379, 380, 381, 382, 383 395, 419, 426, 427, 428-429 385, 387, 388, 389, 395, 406-407, 419, 420, retrofitted/repowered plants with CCS, 53, 69-70, 425, 428, 430, 432 71, 77 as alternative fuel source, 74, see also Coal-and safety management, 408 biomass-to-liquid; Coal-to-liquid supercritical PC, 105, 361, 362, 367, 373, 419 attributes, 332 supply curves, 234 carbon capture and storage, 3, 39, 51, 53, 58, 68, supply of electricity, 36, 49 69-70, 366-379, 421-426, 430-441 T&D system, 16 CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 68, 69-70, 356, 360 timeframe for deployment of clean technology, co-fed biomass and, 91, 235, 237-238, 242, 430-441 245-246 ultrasupercritical PC, 70, 74, 104-105, 128, 362, consumption, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36, 218, 332, 336 363, 367, 419, 430-431 costs, 16, 52, 57, 58, 219, 420-421 Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, capacity build, 245-247 49, 51, 53, 57, 58, 68, 69, 71, 74, 189, 218, carbon capture and storage, 4, 65, 66, 73, 91-92, 331, 358, 360, 366-379, 381-385, 419-430 94, 230, 239 environmental impacts, 16, 52, 92, 219, 249, 408 commercial development, 227, 230 findings, 3, 219
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From page 691... ...
See Energy consumption 147, 148 Context for the report energy intensity, 141-142 aspects not assessed, 31-33 energy management and control systems, 83-84, challenges to sustainable transformation, 25-27 142 charge to the committee, 10, 30-33, 36 lease structures, 153
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From page 692... ...
See also comparison of power plant capital costs, 374-376 specific technologies and energy sources conditional assumptions, 32-33 accelerated, 6, 35, 37-38, 39, 76-79 of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49, 145, 146- barriers to, 60, 76-79, 87-88, 93-94, 136-137, 152 148, 149 154, 155, 172-173, 185-189, 191-192, 202, debt/equity, 126-127 250-252, 447, 477-482, 494-495, 497-498 drivers of, 292-293, 379 consumer resistance to, 35, 50 externalities, 14 n.7, 29, 252, 299 coupling energy-supply and supporting feedstock and food costs, 121, 124-125 technologies, 78 financing period, 122, 126-127 "crash" effort, 35 levelized cost of electricity, 55-60, 293-297, 369- economic effects on end-users, 35, 50 379, 380, 381, 390 industrial capacity and personnel for, 77-78 life-cycle, 50, 56, 136 options, 38-39 limitations, 121, 124-125 parallel tracks, 30, 57, 174, 225, 400, 605 methodologies for estimating, 32-33, 55-56, portfolio approach, 68 120-131 readiness for, 38, 39 overnight costs, 122, 126-127 siting concerns, 57, 60 plant life, 121, 126-127 supply factors, 77-78 plant maturity, 121, 124-125 timeframes for, 35 plant size, 121, 124-125 turnover rate of infrastructure and, 77 projections for evolutionary nuclear plants, Diesel fuel 526-532 biodiesel, 37, 62 n.17, 75, 89, 213, 252-253
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From page 693... ...
Electric motors, 145, 159, 162, 180, 184, 193, 263 plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, Electric Power Research Institute, 293, 382, 420, 527 228, 361, 363-364, 365, 367, 369-373, 376, n.24, 531, 550 n.62, 592, 632 377-378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, Electricity consumption 387, 388, 389-390, 395, 406, 410, 419, 421, energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 140, 146-147, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432 150, 154 intermittent, 57, 58-59 per capita, 199 investment barriers, 359-361, 366 projected, 146 mix of coal, natural gas, and biomass plants, 391 by sector, 41, 42, 47, 139, 140, 141, 146-147, 155, 394, 395, 425-426 180, 181, 184 natural gas, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 51, 55, time-of-use pricing programs, 186 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106, 259, 273, 314, 358, Electricity demand 360, 365-366, 425-426 building sector, 155 NGCC plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, 105-106, 126, charges and demand-response incentives, 189 128, 274, 361, 365, 366, 369-373, 377-378, electrified vehicle fleet and, 4, 44-45, 155, 366 378, 380, 385, 387, 388, 389, 390, 393, 394, energy-efficiency technologies and, 32, 44-45, 155, 426 189 new plants, 42, 45, 105, 359-360, 394-395, price of energy and, 186, 199 427-428 T&D system and, 27 oxyfuel plants, 70, 74, 104, 364, 365, 367, 395, Electricity generation. See also Nuclear energy 419, 423-424 age of baseload plants, 23 PC/IGCC competition, 361-365 air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, petroleum, 51, 359, 360, 365-366 361-365, 366, 369-379, 380, 381, 382, 383 portfolio approach, 4-5, 51, 107-108, 396 385, 387, 388, 389, 395, 406-407, 419, 420, projections, 358 425, 428, 430, 432
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From page 694... ...
694 Index electrified vehicle fleet and, 4, 597-598 RD&D, 395-396 emergency response capability, 611 renewable sources, 13, 51, 52, 57, 58, 59, 359 environmental benefits, 116, 596-599 retail price of electricity, 47-48, 49, 56, 100, 188, FACTS technology, 116, 578, 579-580, 583, 588, 529 602-603, 617, 621-622 siting of facilities, 57, 60 findings, 3, 60-61, 604-607 supply curves, 391-394, 426-430 grid visualization, 117, 589, 590, 591, 613, 631 supply from new technologies or technology mixes, HVDC, 571, 572, 579, 580-581, 598, 603, 615, 49, 51-60 616, 619, 623-624 from waste heat and materials, 221, 235 integrating intermittent/renewable resources water use, 60, 409-410 integrated in, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, wholesale power markets, 56-57, 59 98-99, 116, 118, 133, 290, 291, 292, 296-297, Electricity sector 298, 305-307, 308, 314-315, 316, 322, 563, barriers to improvement, 77 576, 581-582, 584, 597, 604, 607, 614-615, demand side technologies, 45, 60 620, 624, 625 energy efficiency improvements, 40-41 intelligent control and communications, 291, 292, greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 24, 68-69, 70, 297, 322-323, 576-577, 586-588, 604, 611 73 investment barriers, 78, 600, 606 Electricity supply curves, 140 market accommodations, 61 Electricity transmission and distribution (T&D) modern system characteristics, 575-579 systems Northeast blackout of 2003, 573 AC and DC lines and cables, 580-581 operations planning and design, 590-591, 613-614 accommodating all generation and storage options, optimization and efficiency, 577, 613, 619-620 51, 60, 61, 576, 614-615 personnel and equipment shortages, 605 addressing problems, 574-575 potential for deployment, 583-584, 588-589, 591 advanced equipment and components, 116, 579 power electronics, 579-580 584, 604 power quality, 577, 619 barriers to deployment, 78, 117-118, 599-602, problems, 13, 78, 569-574 606-607 public safety benefits, 599 benefits of modernization, 3, 60-61, 118, 594-599 R&D, 607-608 cascading failures and blackouts, 60 regional ownership and regulation, 78, 152-153 characteristics of a modern grid, 611 regulatory and legislative barriers, 78, 152-153, communications system, 116-117, 586-587, 600-601, 606-607 631-632 reliability measures, 61, 611, 612 control technologies, 587-588 restoration after an emergency, 613 costs of connecting, 293 n.5, 296-297, 298, 317 security, 115, 577, 579, 582, 587, 594-595, 596, costs of modernization, 58-59, 61, 117, 592-594, 600, 601, 604, 618 606, 632-636 self-healing, 576, 577, 579-580, 587, 616-617, 618, cultural and communication barriers, 601-602, 607 621 current system, 564-569, 604 sensing and measurements, 116-117, 584-585, 604, custom power, 116, 578, 580, 583, 603, 622-623 628-630 customer motivation and involvement, 61, 617 smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118, 292, 578, 579, decision-support tools, 117, 579, 589, 590, 591, 580, 589, 591, 598, 603, 605-606, 632 599, 603-604, 605, 613, 618, 633 storage, 6, 51, 61, 78, 291, 307, 309, 581-583, deployment of a modern system, 602-604, 605-606 584, 601, 616, 624-626, 627, 634 distribution system, 61, 605-606, 611 system operations, 589-590, 591, 613 economic benefits, 115, 595-596
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From page 695... ...
See also Electricity consumption; cost-effectiveness, 2, 40-41, 49, 82, 148, 154, 155, specific fuels 181 air transportation, 157, 167 and demand for electricity, 32, 44-45, 155, 189 buildings sector, 2, 14, 83, 137, 139, 141-142 drivers of, 84, 88, 154, 155, 175, 189-190 business-as-usual reference case, 2, 21, 36-37 dynamic nature of, 135, 149, 201-202 comparison of sectors, 17, 22, 36-37 economic disincentives, 152-153 current, 2, 17, 135 electricity generation capacity, 154-155 factors affecting, 142 electricity savings, 40-41, 140, 146-147, 150, 154 energy efficiency technologies and, 2, 11-12, end-use and technology approach, 145 137-138 findings, 1-2, 3, 4, 40-49, 50, 154-155, 173-174, by fuel source, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36-37, 139, 332 190-191, 202 historical, 19, 21, 137-138 informational and education needs, 87-88, 153, industry, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44, 136-137, 138, 187-188, 191 139, 175-176, 180-183, 186 infrastructure considerations, 86, 88, 156-157, 160, international comparison, 11-12, 20, 135, 138, 140 171, 174 per capita, 19, 20, 138, 140 integrated approaches, 84, 85, 143-144, 145, 149 per dollar of GDP, 19, 20, 137-138, 140 152, 155, 200 projected, 2, 19, 21, 36-37 international comparisons, 157, 170, 175, 176, 190 total, 22 limitations of studies, 143, 155 Energy costs. See Costs natural gas savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49, 139, 140 Energy demand.
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From page 696... ...
See also Carbon dioxide; 190 Greenhouse gas emissions measurement, 141 aesthetics, 102, 302 price of energy and, 197 biochemical conversion processes, 248-249 reducing, 179, 184, 190, 192, 197 biomass profuction, 248 trends, 11, 142, 176, 182, 197 carbon capture and storage, 406-407 Energy Policy Act of 2005, 27, 109 n.14, 113, 245 carbon monoxide, 260, 322 n.8, 466, 468, 530, 565, 601 challenges in transforming energy systems, 25-26, Energy savings 88 energy efficiency improvements, 1-2, 25, 40-49, 50, findings, 410 62, 82, 83, 84, 88, 135, 137-138, 140-141, 143 land-use impacts, 101-102, 248, 300-303, 313 145, 154, 155, 156, 157-169, 173, 192-198, life-cycle assessment, 300 202 monetized estimates, 405 methods and assumptions, 130-131 nitrogen oxide emissions, xi, 11 n.3, 19, 159, 189, public policies and, 88, 192-198 248, 249, 260, 262-263, 288, 300 n.7, 301, Energy security, 1, 10, 12-13, 25-26, 55, 89, 92, 103, 302, 313, 322, 333, 359, 363-364, 421 135, 218, 219, 232, 247, 267, 596 noise pollution, 102, 302 Energy sources. See also Primary; Useful particulate emissions, 159, 249, 263, 288, 322, access issues, 12 333, 404, 405, 408, 541 flows of energy, 12 policies and legislation, 26, 88, 302-303, 405, 407, stored, 12 408-409, 410 ENERGY STAR® program, 88, 142, 150, 151, 154 in price of energy, 152 n.13, 196-197, 198
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From page 697... ...
See also greenhouse gas emissions, 533 individual countries nuclear fuel production and recycling, 519, 522, Exports of energy, trends, 20. See also individual 533 sources nuclear power, 446, 453, 457 n.30, 504, 505, 508, ExxonMobil, 226 510 n.10, 519 Freight transportation air, 86, 170 commercial HEVs, 156, 159-160 consumption of fuel, 156, 157, 171 F intermodal transfers, 157, 171 potential energy efficiency improvements, 45, 171, Federal Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit, 174 95, 99, 101, 273, 274, 298, 299, 307, 308, 317, rail, 86, 170-171 447 n.7, 468, 489 truck transport, 85-86, 156, 170, 171 Feedstocks.
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From page 698... ...
See also Carbon dioxide; Genetics, 74 Methane; specific sectors, technologies, and Genomics, 74 energy sources Geoengineering, 29, 75 certifying biofuel benefits, 250 Geologic storage of CO2. See also Carbon capture and consumer awareness, 154 storage defined, 11 n.3 capacity for, 399-400 and global warming, xi, 11 n.3, 29, 40 characteristics of suitable sites, 399-400 life-cycle emissions, 212 n.1, 224-225 coal-bed, 70, 107, 396, 398, 399, 433, 434 management, 29, 186; see also Carbon capture environmental issues, 407 portfolio approach to reducing, 68-73 findings, 401-402 timeframe for reducing, 68, 71, 73 monitoring, 441 transportation sector, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84, 156, 160, oil and gas reservoirs, 70, 91, 107, 224, 224, 227, 211 338-340, 341, 342, 343, 396, 397, 398, 399, U.S.
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From page 699... ...
699 Index aluminum, 175, 176, 179, 190 Honda, 163, 264 barriers to improving, 88, 185-189 Hybrid hydrogen-carbon process, 254 biomass use, 17, 180 Hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4, 225, 254-255 capital market barriers, 188 Hydrogen fuel carbon capture and storage, 183 costs, 265-266 cement, 44, 86, 87, 175, 178, 182-183, 186, 402, and greenhouse gas emissions, 267 423 industry use, 182 chemical manufacturing, 86, 175, 176, 178, 180, LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 184, 186, 190 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, CO2 emissions, 175, 182, 183, 333 195, 258, 263-267 petroleum replacement potential, 94, 265-267 coal use, 14, 17, 24, 176, 180, 182 public policies, 264-265 combined heat and power, 44, 86, 87, 176, 177, sources, 263, 284, 285, 456 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 190 supply and fueling infrastructure, 160 consumption of energy, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44, Hydropower 136-137, 138, 139, 175-176, 180-183, 186 consumption, 13, 17, 18, 332 corporate sustainability, 190 costs, 57, 97, 100, 274 cost-effectiveness of improvements, 181 electricity generating capacity, 13, 18, 51, 52, 95, costs of improvements, 186 98, 128, 197, 271, 290, 292 crosscutting technologies, 87, 183-185, 190 employment, 304 demand charges and demand-response incentives, environmental impacts, 97, 287, 301-302 189 greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 300 electricity use, 139, 180, 181, 184 marine and hydrokinetic, 97, 128, 273-274, 278- electric motors, 180, 184 279, 287 energy-intensity, 175, 176, 179, 181-182, 190 ocean thermal energy conversion, 287 external benefits and impacts, 186, 189 policy setting, 273-274 fabrication processes and materials, 87, 176, 179, potential, 95, 98, 290, 317 184-185 price of electricity from, 464 feedstocks, 175, 180, 190 R&D, 292 findings, 190-191 resource base, 278-279, 287 hydrogen fuel, 182 salinity gradient powet, 287 information barriers, 187-188, 191 T&D system, 597 innovation, 179, 190 technology, 97, 279, 287, 291 international comparisons, 175, 176, 190 investment barriers, 188 iron and steel, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177-178, 181 182, 186, 402, 423 major energy-consuming industries, 175 I natural gas use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 139, 176, 180, 183, 184, 259 Imports of energy, trends, 20. See also individual on-demand manufacturing, 86 sources petroleum refining, 86, 87, 175, 176, 178, 180, Independent power producers, 95, 128, 271, 359, 361, 182, 184, 186, 188, 254-255, 334, 403, 423, 465, 466, 467, 473, 473, 496, 527, 528, 529, 512 530, 531, 564, 566 petroleum use, 17, 24 139, 175, 176, 180 India, 20, 452, 453, 504, 506, 524, 572 policy and regulatory issues, 38-39 n.1, 177, 188Industrial sector 189, 198, 307 advanced materials, 87, 184, 190
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From page 700... ...
700 Index life-cycle costs and, 136 pollution control, 184-185, 186, 188-189, 190 mandatory, 188 potential for energy savings, 2, 43-44, 82, 86-87, market risks, 188 176-179, 190 nuclear plants, 70-71 price of energy, 186, 188, 189 payback period, 82, 148, 153, 186 pulp and paper, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177-178, 181 price of fuel and, xii, 82, 172, 192, 366 RD&D, 182, 190, 195 private-sector, 27, 77, 78 reference case, 44, 86, 141, 178-179, 186 public sector, 78 remanufacturing of used products, 87, 185 regulatory policies and, 152-153, 188-189 renewable energy use, 176 renewable resources, 95, 274, 307 resource recovery and utilization, 86, 179, 186 research, development, and demonstrations, 39, return on investments, 82, 177, 190 74-76 risks of adopting new technology, 185-186 returns on, 41, 43 n.6, 47, 49, 77, 78, 82, 83, 177, sensors and control systems, 87, 176, 180, 183, 190 185, 190 risk perceptions, 71, 185-186, 192 separation processes, 87, 176, 180, 181, 184, 190 tax credits, 38 n.1, 188, 195-196, 273-274 steam heating and process heating, 180, 181, 184 T&D systems, 78 thermochemical conversion, 74, 231, 247 trends, 27 time-of-use electricity pricing, 187 Iron and steel industry, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177-178, waste-heat and waste-materials as energy sources, 181-182, 186, 402, 423 86, 87, 181, 182 Italy, 446, 574, 603 Informational and education needs energy efficiency, 87-88, 153, 187-188, 191 Infrastructure issues, 31. See also Electricity transmission energy-efficient technologies, 86, 88, 156-157, 160, J 171, 174 International Japan comparisons, 157, 170, 175, 176, 190 CO2 emissions, 535 cooperation, 29 electric transmission equipment exports, 571-572 International Atomic Energy Agency, 446-447, energy consumption, 11, 20, 140, 170 491-492 industrial energy intensity, 190 International Energy Agency, 333, 397 LNG price to, 350 International Energy Conservation Code, 194 nuclear fusion, 463 Investment in clean energy nuclear power, 350 n.12, 446, 452, 457 n.30, 482, asset renewal or replacement, 13, 78 492 n.108, 504, 505, 508, 509, 510, 522, 535 barriers to deployment of technologies, 77, 78, recycling used fuel, 522 136-137, 152-154, 185-189, 191 transportation sector, 170 capital constraints, 95, 154, 188, 191, 274, 307 Japan Steel Works, 482 consumer resistance to, 49, 50, 79, 136-137, 192 Johnson Controls-Saft, 163 cost-effectiveness, 40-41, 77 depreciation rules, 152, 188 energy efficiency technologies, 82, 83, 136-137, 142, 148, 152-154 L externalities, 186 incentives for, 78 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 310 information barriers, 187-188, 191 Lead-acid batteries, 162, 582, 627
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From page 701... ...
See 164, 166, 263 also Alternative transportation fuels; Biofuels; greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 16, 73, 85, 160, 161, Cellulosic ethanol; Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid 164 fuels; Coal-to-liquid fuels; Diesel; Gasoline; hydrogen fuel-cell, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, Petroleum 75, 84, 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, Lithium ion batteries, 162-163, 625, 627 173, 174, 195, 258, 263-267 international comparisons, 157 manufacturing, 172-173, 175 market share, 164-165, 166, 168 natural-gas-fueled, 259-260 M nonpropulsion system improvements, 84, 85, 161, 166 Malaysia, 20, 261 petroleum consumption, 67, 89, 164, 167, 243 Manhattan Project, 29, 522 plug-in hybrid-electric, 4, 45, 74, 78, 84, 85, 158, Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey, 188 159-160, 161-164, 165, 174, 263-264, 598 Massachusetts, 193, 481 n.82, 531
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From page 702... ...
plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, Methanol, 94 105-106, 126, 128, 274, 361, 365, 366, 369 Methanol-to-gasoline technology, 67, 72, 93, 220, 373, 377-378, 378, 380, 385, 387, 388, 389, 226-227, 228, 229, 235, 236-237, 238, 239, 390, 393, 394, 426 240, 252, 258-259, 262, 263 combustion turbine, 273 Micro-grids, 617 competitiveness, 105-106, 273, 314, 379-380, 406 Micro-manufacturing, 179 compressed, 94, 258, 259-261 MicroSun, 163 constraints on production, 338 Micro-turbines, 598, 621 consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 37, 139, 146-147, Microwave technologies, 179, 190, 291, 628-829 259, 332-333, 335, 351 Minnesota, 196, 404 n.39, 481 costs, 48-49, 273, 360 Mobius Power, 163 economic importance, 15 Molecular biology, 74 electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, Municipal solid waste, 89, 97, 213-214, 217, 235, 51, 55, 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106, 259, 273, 235, 272, 273, 287 314, 358, 365-366, 425-426 energy efficiency savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49, 139, 140, 146-147, 148, 154 environmental impacts, 355 exploration and production technology, 336, 343, N 347-348 feedstock for fuel, 94, 258, 261 Nanotechnology and nanomaterials, 179, 184, 185, findings, 3 190, 283, 284, 291, 454, 513, 581 industrial use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 139, 176, 180, Naphtha, 226, 228, 261 183, 184, 259 National Academies, 404 n.38 import dependence (potential) , 3, 15, 16, 25, 37, National Energy Technology Laboratory, 362 n.16, 71, 103, 259, 314, 336, 350, 358 368 n.19, 370 methane emissions, 259 National Environmental Policy Act, 26, 352, 405 new plants, 70 National Mining Association, 404 n.37 offshore, 346, 347, 348, 351-352, 353 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, pipelines, 109, 332, 334, 406, 407, 409 403 n.35 potential, 16 National Petroleum Council, 341-342, 343, 344 n.8, prices, 3, 15, 25, 48, 49, 57-58, 59, 71, 103, 188, 345, 349, 354, 404 n.36 260, 261, 348, 349, 350, 360, 372 National Petroleum Reserve, 351, 355 production (domestic)
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From page 703... ...
703 Index federal incentives, 39 n.2, 55, 58, 59, 447, 468 reserves and resources, 2, 3, 15, 37, 102-103, 149, 469, 532 n. 31 259, 332, 335, 336, 346-350, 351-355, 357, findings, 2, 3, 39, 70-71, 494-499 416-418 fossil fuel power plants compared, 467 retrofitted plants with CCS, 70, 71 greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 69, 70-71, 445, 482 safety management, 260, 409, 418 484, 498, 533-536 shales, 15, 103, 105-106, 342, 343, 346, 347-348, improvements to existing plants, 52-53, 110, 448 349, 350, 355, 358, 385, 405, 426 451, 463-464, 474-475, 497 single-cycle plants, 23 international interest, 446-447 "stranded," 261 new plants, 3, 51, 53, 445, 467 supply and demand, 103, 106, 354-355, 358, 361, operating license extensions, 53-55, 110, 112, 450 379-380, 426 451, 463-464, 473, 476, 497, 515, 546, 548 tight gas sands, 15, 103, 346, 347 personnel and parts shortages, 481-482, 498 transportation fuel, 37, 139, 259-260 potential for deployment, 3, 13, 70-71, 112-113, Natural Resources Defense Council, 404 n.7 471-477 NEC, 163 power uprates, 52-53, 110, 449-450, 474-475, 497 New Source Performance Standards, 78, 189, 384 proliferation risk, 111, 458-459, 460, 462, 489, New York, energy efficiency programs, 193, 198, 199, 491-492, 496, 499, 504, 518, 519, 522, 524 200 public concerns, 113-114, 447, 479-481, 497-498 New Zealand, 226 refueling outages, 110, 451 Nickel cadmium batteries, 627 regulatory and legislative issues, 113, 478-479, 498 Nickel metal hydride batteries, 625, 627 R&D, 451, 499 Nigeria, 261 safety and security, 115, 480, 489-492 Nissan, 163 share of electricity generation, 447-448 Nitrogen oxide emissions, 11 n.3, 19, 159, 189, 248, supply of electricity, 3, 14, 49, 51, 52-55, 114, 197, 249, 260, 262-263, 288, 300 n.7, 301, 302, 447, 496-497 313, 333, 359, 363-364, 421 technologies, 110-112, 448-463; see also Nuclear Nixon administration, 26, 458 n.34 reactors Norway, 107, 437, 524 terrorist attacks, 489-491 Nuclear energy water use, 485-486, 539-541 accidents, 446, 453, 480, 489-491, 503, 553-555, Nuclear Energy Advisory Committee, 456 n.27 556-557 Nuclear fuel cycle.
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From page 704... ...
, 462, 495, 470, 471, 519, 507, 508, 521, 525 520, 521 fuel rods, 454, 455 once-through, 458, 459 n.40, 462, 464 n.52, 470, gas-cooled, 455 n.24, 504 n.5, 507, 508, 509, 511 471, 485, 491, 492, 499, 517, 520, 524, 525, heat transfer materials, 454, 499, 513-514 534 n.35, 539, 540, 542 light water, 452, 453, 455, 456, 457, 459, 461, R&D opportunities, 455, 460-461, 524-525 462, 467, 470, 472, 503, 504, 509, 511, 512, recycling used fuel, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 470 513, 514, 518, 519-521, 522, 524, 525, 544 471, 491, 495-496, 517, 519, 520, 521-523, neutron moderator, 452, 453 525, 539 pressurized water, 452, 453, 503, 504, 473, 475, separations technologies, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 505, 549 471, 491, 495, 520, 522, 531-523 R&D opportunities, 6, 454-455, 457, 512-516 simulation and modeling, 525 readiness for deployment, 39 thorium, 506, 523-524 small modular reactors, 456, 506-507, 509-510 transuranic targets, 458 n.23, 462, 521 sodium-cooled, 455 n.24, 457 n.30, 470, 504 n.5, world capasity, 446-447 506 n.7, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 513 Nuclear fusion, 29, 463, 495 technologies, 451-457 Nuclear reactors thermal, 452, 453, 456, 458 n.33, 462, 486, 506 advanced boiling-water reactor, 453, 454 n.20, 474, 507, 508, 519, 521 504, 505-506 U.S. evolutionary power, 453, 454, 474, 503, 504, advanced pressurized water, 453-454, 474, 504, 505 505, 506 very-high-temperature, 456, 506-507, 508, 511-512 advanced simulation codes, 515-516, 525 Nuclear waste management, 60 alternative designs, 111, 452-453, 455-457, 470 burning fuel cycles and, 518-519 471, 503, 504-508, 509-510, 512, 524-525 costs, 528, 551 AP1000, 453, 454 decommissioning wastes, 486-487, 528, 542, 543, boiling-water, 452, 453, 472-473, 475, 505 548, 550-551 coolants and cooling systems, 452, 453, 454, 485 environmental impacts, 486-489 486, 489-490, 499, 503, 506, 508, 512-513, final disposal, 480-481, 545-547 514, 539-540, 553, 554, 556 high-level wastes, 115, 436, 458 n.34, 486, 487 costs, 70-71 488, 496, 518, 545-547, 552 degradation phenomena, 450, 514-515 interim storage, 115, 488-489, 541, 543, 549, demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 68, 547-548 70-71 low-level wastes, 461, 520, 543, 548-550 design certification, 453, 454, 478, 479, 505, 506, other operating wastes, 543, 548-550 507, 509-510, 511 public concerns, 447, 480-481, 498 digital instrumentation and control, 455, 515 used fuel disposal, 455, 542-544 economic simplified boiling-water reactor Yucca Mountain high-level-waste storage, 115, 436, (ESBWR)
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From page 705... ...
See also Gasoline; Petroleum access issue, 12, 344, 345, 350-355 P Alaska production, 343, 351, 353 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 344, 345, 351, Pakistan, 452 354, 355 Panasonic/Sanyo, 163 carbon capture and storage, 341, 402 Particulate emissions, 159, 249, 263, 288, 322, 333, CO2 emissions, 341, 342 404, 405, 408, 541 CO2 enhanced oil recovery, 91, 224, 227, 338-340, Passenger transportation 341, 342, 343, 396, 397, 398, 401, 402, 407, air, 86 n.8, 167, 170 424, 435-437 consumption of energy, 156 constraints on production, 338, 341-343 mass transit, 156, 260-261 costs, 152, 338, 339, 341 systemic improvements, 171-172 consumption, 335, 351 vehicular, see Light-duty vehicles crisis, 137 Petroleum. See also Fossil fuels; Oil demand, 15 attributes, 332 environmental impacts/management, 341, 342, 355, buildings sector, 17, 24, 139 408-409 CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 72, 156 exploration and production technology, 336, 337, 343 consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 62, 89, 102, 139, heavy oil, 171, 337, 339, 340, 342 137, 138, 155-157, 243, 332 import dependence, 333, 336 demand, 15, 332-333 in situ retorting, 340-341 dependence, xi, 25, 63, 67, 89 light oil, 261, 338-340, 402 economic importance, 14 liquid fuel consumption, 62-65, 171 electricity generation, 36, 360 offshore resources, 339, 343, 344, 345, 347, 349, energy efficiency improvements and, 67 350, 351, 352-353, 354, 355 import dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, political importance, 14-15 62, 84, 89, 93, 139, 156, 160, 180, 211, 212, prices, xii, 15, 67, 152, 211, 342, 344, 345, 354- 243 355, 360 industrial sector, 17, 24, 139, 175, 176, 180 production (domestic)
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From page 706... ...
See also individual barriers to adoption of technologies, 6, 76-77, 78, sources 152, 191-192 Public engagement, 29-30 California experience, 191, 193, 196, 198, 199-200 Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act, 88, 196, 197, carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1, 189, 244, 393-394, 198 406 Pulp and paper industry, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177, 178, combined heat and power systems, 196, 198 181 consumer education, training, and technical PUREX, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 520, assistance, 196-197, 200, 201 522, 531-523 costs of, 45 n.8, 148 energy savings estimates, 88, 192-198 energy efficiency, 82, 86, 88, 148, 152, 154, 172 173, 189, 191-202 ENERGY STAR® program, 88, 142, 150, 151, 154 Q n.13, 196-197, 198 environmental, 350-355 Qatar, 261, 416 federal, 192-198 fiscal, 152, 172, 188, 200, 307 incentives and grants, 6, 38 n.1, 200, 201, 264-265, 273 R investment impacts, 307 land-use management, 86, 172 Reagan administration, 26, 458 n.34 lessons learned, 201 Recycling, 86, 179, 186 New York experience, 193, 198, 199, 200 Regulations and standards. See also Legislation; RD&D, 88, 194-195, 197, 200, 201 individual statutes revision, 201-202 appliance efficiency standards, 88, 154 n.13, 192, state/utility, 88, 154, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 198, 193-194, 197, 198, 200, 201 199-200, 273 building energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88, 146, tax credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101, 144, 188, 192, 152-153, 154, 192, 194, 198, 199, 200, 201, 195-196, 273, 274, 298, 299, 307, 308, 317, 319 447, 468, 530 CAFE, 28, 45 n.7, 46, 85, 157, 166-167, 192-193, Population 197, 198, 267 distribution considerations, 142, 171-172, 291, barriers to technology investments, 152-153, 319, 407, 540, 581, 598, 607 188-189 growth, 11-12, 25, 83, 409-410, 540 energy efficiency, 27, 28, 38-39 n.1, 40, 45, 46, 62, Potential energy sources 78-79, 85, 87, 88, 142, 154, 157, 166-167, 188 defined, 13 189, 191, 192-193, 197, 198, 267 Power grid.
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From page 707... ...
Hydropower; Solar; Wind advanced materials, 76 20% electricity generation, 13, 95, 98-99, 305-306, alternative liquid fuels, 74-75, 221, 247, 255, 265, 309-316, 317 267 atmospheric emissions, 300-302, 313 basic research, 75-76 combined energy-waste-and-water plants, 291 battery technologies, 6, 30, 76, 79, 85, 625-626 competitiveness, 97-98, 289, 290, 299 biofuels, 74-75, 90, 221-222, 224 consumption of energy from, 21, 22, 332 biosciences, 74 co-siting of different technologies, 98, 290, 306 buildings sector, 150, 197 307, 308-309, 315-316 CCS demonstrations, 5, 6, 39, 51-52, 65, 66, 68, costs, 33, 51, 99-100, 273, 274, 292-299 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108-109, 212, 225, deployment barriers, 12, 97-98, 101 227, 228, 230, 232-233, 250-251, 361, 360, deployment scenarios, 309-317 365, 378, 382-383, 397, 398, 431, 432 development potential, 97-99, 303-309 cellulosic ethanol demonstrations, 6, 64, 74, 90, electricity generation capacity, 2, 31, 51, 94-96, 221-222, 224 271-274, 279-292 climate-related, 75 electricity generation costs, 293-297 CO2 recycling, 75 employment, 304 environmental impacts, 101-102, 299-303 coal technologies, 6, 64, 74, 221-222, 224, findings, 2, 291-292, 297, 299, 302-303, 307-309, 430-441 317 electricity generation, 395-396 greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 101, 300, 302, 313, energy efficiency, 6, 74, 85, 150, 174, 192, 194 317 195, 197, 200, 201 human and materials resource constraints, 101, evolutionary nuclear reactor demonstrations, 5, 6, 303-304, 308, 323 68, 70-71, 74 industry use, 176 federal support, 76, 194-195, 296 integration in T&D systems, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, geoengineering, 75 59, 60, 61, 98, 99, 101, 116, 118, 133, 290, geothermal power, 75 291, 292, 296-297, 298, 305-307, 308-309, industry, 182, 190, 195 314, 316, 322-323, 563, 576, 581-582, 584, investments in, 39, 74, 75-76 597, 604, 614-615, 620, 624, 625 LDV technologies, 6, 74, 75 land-use impacts, 101-102, 300-303, 313 national effort, 28 levelizied cost estimates, 293-297 natural gas from hydrates, 75 market factors, 307 nuclear fuel cycle, 75 non-electricity (distributed) , 99-100, 318-322 oil shale extraction technologies, 75 policy setting, 101, 273-274, 279, 302, 307, 317 opportunities for, 6, 30, 73-76, 79, 85, 625-626 production constraints, 304-305 portfolio approach, 5-6, 73, 201, 267, 378-379 R&D, 98, 289-290, 296, 307-308 radioactive waste management, 75 resource base, 95-96, 275-279 solar photovoltaics, 75, 76 speculative technologies, 291-292 scale of demonstrations, 28 status, 271-274 social science research, 75 supply of electricity, 13, 51, 52, 197 urgency of, 5, 30, 71 technology descriptions, 96-97, 280-289 wind energy, 75 timeframes for deployment of technologies, Reserves.
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From page 708... ...
whole-house approach, 144, 151 backup power, 151 n.10 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 405 competitiveness, 99-100 Resources, defined, 13. See also individual energy costs, 58, 99-100, 101, 281, 283-284, 293, sources 294-295 Resources for the Future, 404 n.38 dye-sensitized solar cell, 283, 284, 292 Russia, 261, 452, 457 n.30, 463, 470, 493, 494, 505, electricity generation capacity, 272, 277-278, 506, 510, 511, 519 n.16, 524, 533, 538 316 Russian Federation, 415, 416 employment, 304 energy savings, 151 environmental impacts, 302 greenhouse gas emissions, 69 S integration in power grid, 3 nanotechnology, 283, 284, 291 Safe Drinking Water Control Act, 407 organic solar cells, 283, 292 Sasol, 226, 261 point-of-use (residential)
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From page 709... ...
See also Air transportation; carbon, 38 n.1, 244, 406 Alternative transportation fuels; Freight credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101, 144, 188, 192, transportation; Passenger transportation 195-196, 273, 274, 298, 299, 307, 308, 317, barriers to improving energy efficiency, 172-173 447 n.7, 468, 489, 530 baseline case, 141 depreciation deductions, 152, 188, 190 commercial, 156, 159-160 fuel/energy, 157, 192 consumption of energy, 137, 138, 155-157, Technetium, 522, 523, 552 243 Technology. See Critical technologies; Energy energy efficiency, 2, 3, 4, 38-39 n.1, 40, 41, 43, 44 supply and end-use technologies; Research, 46, 62, 82, 84-86, 88, 141, 155-174 development, and demonstrations; specific energy intensity, 175 technologies findings, 3, 4, 44-45, 173-174 Texas, 338, 339, 397, 398, 401, 436, 567, 568 greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84, 108, Thailand, 20 156, 160, 211, 212, 333 Thermochemical conversion infrastructure considerations, 86, 156-157, 160, biomass-to-liquid fuel, 91, 226, 227, 228, 229, 171, 174 232, 239-240, 252 intelligent systems, 86, 171-172 carbon capture and storage, 74, 91-92, 226, 227, international comparisons, 157, 170 228, 229-230, 231-233, 239, 250-251 liquid fuel consumption, 36-37, 62-65, 139 co-fed biomass and coal, 3-4, 91-92, 227, 228, 229, petroleum dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 62, 84, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237-238, 242, 245-246, 89, 108, 139, 156, 180, 211, 243, 331 247-248, 249 portfolio approach, 4, 5, 68, 71 coal-to-liquid fuel, 91, 92, 220, 227, 228-229, 230 potential for energy savings, 44-46, 62, 82, 84, 231, 249 156, 157-169, 173 commercialization, 226-227 public policies, 86, 172-173 cost analysis, 91, 227-231, 244 regulations, 38-39 n.1 direct liquefaction of coal, 230-231 system-level improvements, 86, 171-172, 174 environmental impacts, 249 TVA, 186, 473 n.68 findings, 231-232
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From page 710... ...
Department of Energy, 219 V 20% wind electricity generation scenario, 13, 95, 98-99, 305-306, 309-316 Vanadium redox, 625, 627 Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative, 470, 510, 522 Vermont, 196 employment, 304 FutureGen, 360, 432 Job and Economic Development model, 313 Next Generation Nuclear Plant program, 456, 511 W Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office, 185, 293 Washington state, 196 Office of Nuclear Energy, 522 Waste-heat and waste-materials as energy sources, 86, Office of Science, 76 87, 181, 182 RD&D programs, 194-195, 198, 221-222, 293 Water use, 248, 409-410 Solar America Initiative, 310, 316 Western Governors' Association, 316 U.S. Department of the Interior, 403 n.35 Western Wind and Solar Integration Study, 314 U.S.
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From page 711... ...
711 Index siting, 60, 101, 308-309, 315-316 employment, 304 storage and load management, 75, 99, 280, 281, energy flows, 12, 13 297, 308-309 environmental impacts, 101, 301, 302, 313 supply curve, 297, 298 financing, 95, 274 technology description, 96, 280-281, 282 and greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 312 turbines, 95, 96, 100, 276, 279, 280-281, 282, 296, high-altitude kites, 291 304-305, 311-312, 315, 317 integration in power grid, 3, 34, 57, 60, 81, 96, 99, World GTL, 261 100, 101, 133, 280, 290, 296-297, 298, 306 World Resources Institute, 404 n.38 307, 314-315, 317 Worldwatch Institute, 404 n.38 manufacturing, materials, and labor requirements, Wyoming, 339, 397 98, 311-313 offshore, 36, 58, 100, 126, 281, 294-295, 313-314 onshore, 36, 57, 58, 99, 100, 126, 276, 281, 293 n.5, 294-295, 297, 299 potential, 96, 99 Z price of, 273 public policies, 95, 99, 101, 273, 274, 307, 308 ZEBRA battery, 627 resource base, 96, 128, 275-276, 279 Zinc bromide battery, 625, 627 self-erecting towers, 281
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Key Terms
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