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5 Science Learning in Designed Settings
Pages 127-172

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From page 127...
... Like everyday learning, learning in designed settings is highly participant structured, but also reflects the intended communicative and pedagogical goals of designers and educators. And in important ways, designed spaces are unlike science learning programs.
From page 128...
... This is particularly salient in designed spaces, where learners are not assumed to operate under strong cultural pressures to participate or achieve a particular goal, as they may be pressured to do in schools, educational programs, and workplace settings. Participants in designed science learning settings control their own learning agenda.
From page 129...
... . Other studies have described science learning in informal settings as an opportunity to appropriate the language or participate in the "culture" of science (Borun et al., 1998; Crowley and Callanan, 1998; Ellenbogen, 2003)
From page 130...
... Although we focus primarily on designed settings, we also note that schools and field trips play an important role; Box 5-1 is a summary of the relevant research on field trips. Strand 1: Developing Interest in Science Some key assumptions about learning in informal environments are that exciting experiences lead to intrinsically motivated learning, and that these experiences are personally meaningful, providing experiential foundations for more advanced structured, science learning.
From page 131...
... Specific connections between affect, thinking, and activity settings, moreover, have not been studied and are clearly needed. Interest The construct of interest takes one deeper into the question of what people learn from experiences in informal environments.
From page 132...
... . Although results are mixed regarding the impact of field trips to informal institutions on children's attitudes, interest, and knowledge of science, the majority of studies that have measured knowledge and attitudes have found positive changes (Koran, Koran, and Ellis, 1989)
From page 133...
... Instead, most students were observed talking in the coffee shop, sitting on gallery benches, copying each other's worksheets, or moving quickly from exhibit to exhibit. Involvement by Teachers and Chaperones Classroom teacher involvement is a key ingredient to successful field trips, yet studies have consistently found that teachers often play a very small role or no role in the planning or execution of excursions and that institution staff are responsible for connecting exhibits to classroom content (Anderson and Zhang, 2003; Griffin, 1994; Griffin and Symington, 1997; Tal, Bamberger, and Morag, 2005)
From page 134...
... Furthermore, alignment of classroom and field trip content and teacher buy-in are important, because they have been con nected with student learning from field trips (Price and Hein, 1991; Griffin and Symington, 1997)
From page 135...
... study of field trips taken by students in 13 Australian schools, about half of the teachers reported they planned to do follow-up activities, but only about a quarter of the teachers reported doing so. Furthermore, no students expected to receive meaningful follow-up, which may indicate that this was a common experience for them.
From page 136...
... . However, this theory has yet to be applied to informal environments.
From page 137...
... For example, Falk, Moussouri, and Coulson (1998) used the technique of personal meaning mapping, in which visitors complete pre- and post-exhibit diagrams, to record the deepening and broadening of their understanding of a science topic as a result of visiting an exhibition.
From page 138...
... . In addition to the key role of direct experiences, there is evidence that interpretive materials, such as labels, signs, and audio-guides, contribute significantly to this strand of science learning.
From page 139...
... . There is also substantial literature on the environmental design of informal science learning settings, including architectural and interior design, exhibit arrangement, label design and positioning, graphical and textual design, lighting, and other physical characteristics.
From page 140...
... The most studied environments in which visitors engage in these processes are physically interactive exhibits at science centers, which typically support a broader range of investigatory behaviors than animals or living ecosystems. The most common audience studied has been family groups, which is the largest single audience (numerically and economically)
From page 141...
... characterized as "do and see": Visitors manipulate an exhibit to explore its capabilities and observe what happens as a result. Randol conducted very detailed studies of visitors' inquiry behaviors at eight interactive exhibits from three science centers.
From page 142...
... She defined four subcategories: identification ("Oh, look 1500 1000 500 0 Manipulate Variable Discuss Procedure Control Variable Make Observation Ask Question Describe Results Make Prediction State Theory Collect Data Draw Conclusion Find Flaw Make Connection Generalize Explain Investigation Support a Claim FIGURE 5-1  Frequency of visitor actions at interactive exhibits. SOURCE: Randol (2005)
From page 143...
... For example, Borun and colleagues (1998) defined three levels of family learning in informal environments: identifying, describing, and interpreting/applying.
From page 144...
... in her analysis of visitors' conversa tions in a multidisciplinary exhibition about frogs. She noted, however, that this figure may be particularly low because many of the elements were live animals rather than interactive exhibits.
From page 145...
... Drawing conclusions, generalizing, and argumentation are much less frequently observed inquiry behaviors in designed settings. Randol's study of eight interactive exhibits found that, although the exhibits were selected
From page 146...
... conducted interviews with casual visitors, as well as students on school field trips, and found that the exhibition contributed to their understanding of science and society by considering science and social responsibility, controversy and debate, decision making, and ethics. She found that 84 percent of the comment cards left by visitors were over whelmingly positive, "applauding the science center's efforts to demystify and deconstruct the practice of science while providing a social cultural context" (Pedretti, 2004, p.
From page 147...
... Randol (2005) found that visitors using eight interactive exhibits at science museums frequently made some kind of self-reflective comment, typically with a focus on the way they were using the particular exhibit they were engaged with.
From page 148...
... Research ers have found that successful science education depends on the learners' involvement in forms of communication and reasoning that models that of scientific communities (Gee, 1994; Lemke, 1990; National Research Council, 2007)
From page 149...
... When using interactive exhibits with their children, parents tend to focus their explanations on the functions and mechanics of the exhibit, connecting the exhibit with real phenomena, and making connections to formal science ideas (Crowley and Callanan, 1998)
From page 150...
... (2002) observed 94 parents of children ages 6-10, as well as 16 museum staff inter acting with children at an exhibit in a science gallery.
From page 151...
... Thus, it is not yet clear whether scientific argumentation can be incorporated into these settings without jeopardizing defining properties of informal environments. There are documented examples of the use of scientific terminology and language on occasions when museum visitors read labels aloud (Crowley and Jacobs, 2002; Borun et al., 1996)
From page 152...
... Although families seemed not to make gender-based distinctions in bringing children to museums, engaging them in interactive science activities, talking about what exhibits do, or talking about what to perceive in an exhibit, they placed significantly greater emphasis on explaining science to boys. This subtle dis tinction could have consequences for girls' science learning, raising concerns for parents and educators who design and facilitate learning in designed set tings.
From page 153...
... They found that museum visitors, especially adults, were more likely to engage in such behaviors as touching a manipulative exhibit, listening to headphones, or attending to an exhibit for an extended period if they had previously witnessed a person silently modeling these behaviors. Strand 6: Identifying with the Scientific Enterprise Informal environments for science learning, like all educational institutions, can be seen as places of enculturation (Bruner, 1996; Martin and Toon, 2005; Pearce, 1994)
From page 154...
... . For example, Falk tells of Frank, a 40-year-old father whose agenda in museum visits is closely tied to his own childhood experiences.
From page 155...
... . Viewing the visitor as "stranger" reflects a tradition in which the personal collections of gentry were used for their own individual investigations of natural history.
From page 156...
... have suggested that young children learn science by building "islands of expertise," or topics in which they become interested and knowledgeable about over a period of weeks, months, or years. These topics become integrated into family activities, such as field trips, reading books, and dinnertime conversations.
From page 157...
... . They found that while prior knowledge was the most potent predictor of learning in museums, in this case, the more a visitor knew about life science when entering the exhibition, the less they gained, suggesting a ceiling effect or a limitation in the type of gains that could be measured (rather than a disavowal of the importance of prior knowledge)
From page 158...
... Several evaluation studies suggest that a range of designed settings for science learning afford learners opportunities to experience this kind of wonder and respect toward the natural world. For example: "I learned all about plants -- where they come from and how they live -- so that makes me respect them [plants]
From page 159...
... shows that adults seeking learning experiences in their midlives often turn to subjects that were of interest to them around the age of 10. These studies highlight the impact of experiences in informal environments at an early age on later life decisions for some, offering evidence of ongoing learning progressions in science.
From page 160...
... . Intensive programming for science learning has also been shown to have a long-lasting impact on children's identities as learners.
From page 161...
... Further work is needed, then, on identity development and sustainability in relation to learning science in informal environments over time, focused on learners' multiple identities and how exploring a new identity or integrating multiple identities can lead to greater participation in science. CONCLUSION The literature on designed settings for science learning provides considerable evidence of learning across the strands.
From page 162...
... For Strand 6, there is evidence of learners' attempts to personalize and integrate science learning experiences with their values and identity. This lends support to the educational practice of adjusting science content and learning experiences to be compatible with learner agendas.
From page 163...
... International Journal of Science Education, 22 (8)
From page 164...
... . Informal science learning: What the research says about television, science museums and community-based projects.
From page 165...
... . School field trips: Assessing their long-term impact.
From page 166...
... Inter national Journal of Science Education, 17 (2)
From page 167...
... Science Education, 90 (3)
From page 168...
... . Effects of novelty-reducing preparation on exploratory behavior and cognitive learning in a science museum setting.
From page 169...
... Committee on Science Learning, Kindergarten Through Eighth Grade.
From page 170...
... Science Education, 91 (5)
From page 171...
... . Supporting science learning in museums.
From page 172...
... International Journal of Science Education, 22 (7)


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