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Resolving Problems: Identifying and Evaluating Alternatives
Pages 94-117

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From page 94...
... Regardless of the specific circumstances, however, one step in this process merits special emphasis: identifying and evaluating the full range of alternative solutions available. Chapter 4 outlined the generic systems approach necessary to assess any complex environmental problem and discussed the first steps of such a process.
From page 95...
... Using irrigation-induced water quality problems as a focus, the two sections below list selected classes of options to demonstrate the range that must be considered. One section discusses technical responses and the other discusses institutional responses, even though it is clear that successful strategies will need to combine elements from both categories.
From page 96...
... The more acute and less common effect, vividly illustrated in the San Joaquin Valley, is the mobilization of specific trace elements in relatively small, but potentially toxic, concentrations. In evaluating drainage options, this distinction between types of problems must not be lost.
From page 97...
... For instance, the disposal of the return flows from the New Lands Project into the Mucked River in Nevada has only served to cause severe water quality problems in the Stillwater basin. Studies assessing disposal of the San Joaquin Valley's drainage water by discharging it into San Francisco Bay or directly into the ocean have shown these options to be expensive and controversial.
From page 98...
... Furthermore, it is difficult to establish with certainty that the injected water will not have long-term negative effects on regional water quality. Also, there is some concern that large volumes of injected water could destabilize the region tectonically.
From page 99...
... Unlike land retirement, irrigation management allows agricultural production to continue. However, source control activities generally require more careful
From page 100...
... The construction of onsite evaporation ponds to collect and concentrate salts from irrigation water drainage is an attempt to use this natural process to store salts temporarily or permanently at a selected location. Evaporation ponds are a commonly used means to deal with saline subsurface agricultural drainage water (Lee et al., 1988a)
From page 101...
... Concentration through evaporation can lead, in short order, to levels that are toxic to fish and fowl. In fact, in the San Joaquin Valley, excessive levels of arsenic, boron, molybdenum, and selenium have been noted in some evaporation ponds (Schroeder et al., 1988~.
From page 102...
... Second, these approaches are specific to selenium and do not address the wider question of other trace elements. One biological approach investigated in the San Joaquin Valley uses fungi to remove selenium.
From page 103...
... INSTITUTIONAL OPTIONS Finding a solution to the complicated water quality problems caused by irrigation requires a careful review of institutional as well as technical options. Although the two options are addressed separately in this chapter, they cannot be dealt with separately in actual practice.
From page 104...
... Many of the people affected would not be causing downstream water quality problems. Others would find it more difficult to invest in alternative actions to reduce drainage problems.
From page 105...
... Similar crosslinkages between good management practices or drainage reduction on the one side, and subsidized water prices or crop price supports on the other, may offer an opportunity for persuasion without excessive unilateral controls. Legal Changes Existing legal provisions strongly influence the feasibility of selecting various technical solutions to reduce the water quality problems associated with irrigation drainage water.
From page 106...
... Reducing the constraints on water transfers would not, by itself, necessarily reduce the water quality problems associated with irrigation drainage. In a manner similar to increasing water prices, it could lead to a general improvement in the efficiency with which water is used, but these improvements would not necessarily be focused on areas creating the most serious water quality problems.
From page 107...
... Incorporating water quality concerns directly into the legal structure governing the allocation of water would probably require states to modify their existing legislative doctrines. Conceivably, the reasonable use doctrine could be expanded to include a water quality dimension, for instance by declaring that reasonable use requires that any unused water or waste water be of sufficiently good quality that it causes no damage to downstream users or to the environment.
From page 108...
... Organizational Changes Implementing effective and efficient solutions to the problems being experienced in the San Joaquin Valley may require modifications in certain administrative organizations because of the conflicting responsibilities of the different agencies and institutions involved in water management. Broadening and Redefining Responsibilities One way to reduce the institutional problems caused by conflicting responsibilities would be to broaden the responsibilities of existing institutions.
From page 109...
... Another institutional impediment in some parts of the San Joaquin Valley is that water often is delivered to irrigation districts and individual farmers on a fixed schedule, regardless of whether it is needed. This can result in the farmer applying excess water to the land, thus causing increased drainage.
From page 110...
... However, significant opposition also can result if less powerful interests such as small farmers or minorities are unfairly affected, or if the general taxpayer is expected to pay a major portion of the bill for investments that will benefit a small group of already heavily subsidized irrigators. EVALUATING ALTERNATIVES The final step in the study process is to evaluate the technical and institutional options that have been identified and select those that appear to be most attractive.
From page 111...
... For instance, if the problem is defined to be deteriorating water quality, the definition of the problem should indicate which particular contaminants are of concern (e.g., selenium alone, other specific salts, all salts, all agricultural chemicals, all contaminants for which water quality standards are in place, or some other specific list of substances)
From page 112...
... Again, the way in which these evaluations will be conducted and the specific criteria and measurements that will be used in the evaluation process should be spelled out early in the study process. Technical Criteria Any proposed response to an irrigation-induced water quality problem needs to be technically and scientifically sound.
From page 113...
... Other Institui'onal Criteria All proposed alternative responses also must be evaluated in light of various other institutional criteria such as social and political acceptability, whether the responses are in accord with existing laws and court interpretations, and whether they fit into existing institutional responsibilities. The more congruent the proposal is with existing practices, the more likely it is to rate well according to these criteria.
From page 114...
... Nor should every proposed response necessarily receive the same thorough analysis. Relatively simple evaluations conducted early in the study may demonstrate that some options are clearly undesirable, for instance because they are technically infeasible or prohibitively expensive.
From page 115...
... Also, it was assumed in the past that the public view was represented by the political input, but that perception has now become more realistic. The identification and evaluation process must consider questions such as the following: Does the option involve proven technology?
From page 116...
... Another crucial aspect of the iterative process involves analyzing the full range of possible alternatives, including those that appear to warrant further attention as well as those that appear flawed. This is helpful to the long-term success and eventual public acceptance of the chosen option.
From page 117...
... 1988. Reconnaissance investigation of water quality, bottom sediments, and biota associated with irrigation drainage in the ll~lare Lake bed area, southern San Joaquin Valley, California, 1986-87.


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