Approaches to Future Space Cooperation and Competition in a Globalizing World Summary of a Workshop (2009) / Chapter Skim
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Appendix E: Session 1 Keynote: Governmental Space Cooperation and Competition During and After the Cold War--Lessons Learned
Appendix E: Session 1 Keynote: Governmental Space Cooperation and Competition During and After the Cold War--Lessons Learned
Pages 47-56
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From page 47... ...
Logsdon, "U.S.-European cooperation in space science: A 25-year perspective," Science 223:11-16, 1984; U.S. Senate, United States International Space Programs: Texts of Executive Agreements, Memoranda of Understanding, and Other International Arrangements, 1959-1965, Senate Document No.
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The exploration of space increasingly emphasized visible and exacting international programs. All of the major human spaceflight efforts, and increasingly as time progressed minor projects, have been identified since the 1970s with international partnerships.
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4. Political advantage.4 Such issues have prompted various nations to go their own way in space, notably in ESA's decision in the 1970s not to accept the offer in toto of NASA to cooperate in a post-Apollo human space program.5 APOLLO: PRIDE AND PRESTIGE Central to any discussion of Apollo is its role as an engine of national pride and international prestige for the United States in the context of Cold War rivalries.
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prowess in space, the answer was always that the United States trailed the Soviets. At the height of the Apollo Moon landings, world opinion had shifted overwhelmingly in favor of the United States.11 The importance of Apollo as an instrument of U.S.
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Equally important, the United States pursued two overarching economic objectives with its cooperative space efforts. First, cooperative projects expanded the investment for any space project beyond that committed by the United States.
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The international partners, then, could be a stabilizing factor for any space project, in essence a bulwark to weather difficult domestic storms.20 Perhaps Fritjof Capra's representative definition of a social paradigm is appropriate when considering the requirements for space projects in the United States in the aftermath of the Apollo Moon landings. While Apollo had been an enormous success from a geopolitical and technological standpoint, NASA had to contend with a new set of domestic political realities for its projects thereafter, and a radical alteration had taken place in the "constellation of concepts, values, perceptions and practices shared by a community, which forms a particular vision of reality that is the basis of the way the community organizes itself."21 International cooperative projects helped NASA to cope with that changing social paradigm.
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commitment to sustained "preeminence" in space activities also waned and significantly less public monies went into NASA missions.23 U.S. political commitment to cooperative projects seemingly waned as well.
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Just as surely as the Apollo program helped the United States from a foreign policy standpoint, so too have the many international collaborations in space activities in the post-Cold War world.29 With international tensions remaining, even as the Cold War ended, collaborative space ventures may prove just as important in the quest to maintain U.S. hegemony -- political, technological, and economic -- in the world as Apollo had been at the height of the Cold War.
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Kenneth Pedersen observed in 1983, "International space cooperation is not a charitable enterprise; countries cooperate because they judge it in their interest to do so."34 For continued cooperative efforts in space to proceed into the 21st century it is imperative that those desiring them define appropriate projects and ensure that sufficient national leaders judge them as being of interest and worthy of making them cooperative. The past 50 years have provided a wealth of experience in how to define, gain approval for, and execute the simplest of cooperative projects.
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