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3 Mobile Animals and Disease
Pages 132-179

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From page 132...
... review the CDC's animal regulations, including those that were developed in response to such noteworthy events as an Ebola outbreak among research animals in a government primate research facility in Reston, Virginia; the emergence of monkeypox in pet prairie dogs; the detection of zoonotic viruses in bushmeat; and the presence of highly pathogenic avian influenza in imported birds. Until recently, the CDC's regulatory actions to address disease threats from imported animals have been largely reactive, species-specific, and pathogen 
From page 133...
... In his contribution to this chapter, workshop speaker Paul Reiter, of Institut Pasteur, examines the role of human activities in the dispersal of several important insect vectors (such as the mosquito species that transmit malaria and yellow fever to humans) and of vector-borne diseases of both humans and animals, including chikungunya, West Nile viral fever, Rift Valley fever, and bluetongue.
From page 134...
... regulations exist to prevent the importation of animals and animal by-products that pose a risk to public health. However, globalization of the food supply, consumer goods, and live animals -- combined with human behaviors and preferences for the exotic -- are ever-growing risk factors for translocation to the United States of zoonotic diseases from parts of the world where they are endemic (or exist in a reservoir state)
From page 135...
... The CDC currently regulates the importation of nonhuman primates, dogs and cats, small turtles, African rodents, civets, and Asian birds to prevent the entry of zoonotic diseases and also regulates the importation of etiologic agents, hosts, and vectors (HHS, 2001)
From page 136...
... . However, canine rabies virus variants continue to be imported via unvaccinated dogs from areas where rabies is enzootic, such as Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Latin America.
From page 137...
... . The puppy exhibited neurologic signs and was confirmed to have rabies by the Alaska Department of Health and Social Services, with a dog rabies virus variant identified as enzootic to India.
From page 138...
... Etiologic Agents, Hosts, and Vectors Under Section 71.54 of the Public Health Service Act (Foreign Quarantine 4) the CDC also regulates etiologic agents, hosts, and vectors (2003b)
From page 139...
... Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in poultry and wild birds reemerged in Asia in 2003 and has become established as a veterinary and human health threat throughout the world, presenting challenges for control due to the widespread geographic areas and large numbers of poultry that are affected.
From page 140...
... . Human infections during the 2003 outbreak were traced back and were determined to have resulted from contact with pet prairie dogs that contracted monkeypox from diseased African rodents imported for the commercial pet trade (CDC, 2003; Hutson et al., 2007; Reed et al., 2004)
From page 141...
... pursuant to 42 CFR § 70.2 and 21 CFR § 1240.30, respectively, issued a joint order prohibiting, until further notice, the transportation or offering of transportation in interstate commerce, or the sale, offering for sale, or offering for any other type of commercial or public distribution, including release into the environment, of prairie dogs and the six implicated species of African rodents (FDA, 2003; Gerberding and McClellan, 2003)
From page 142...
... . Rodents, once established, have several traits that make them ideal hosts for zoonotic diseases.
From page 143...
... Fish and Wildlife Service LEMIS. TABLE 3-3 Some Important Rodent-Borne Zoonotic Pathogens and Their Hostsa Pathogen Host species Disease Viruses Cowpox virus Cowpox Apodemus, Myodes Monkeypox virus Rodents Monkeypox Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus Rodents Omsk hemorrhagic fever Kyasanur forest disease virus Rodents Kyasanur forest disease Arenaviruses Flexal virus Unidentified rodent Hemorrhagic fever Guanarito virus Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever Zygodontomys brevicauda Junín virus Argentine hemorrhagic fever Calomys musculinus Lassa virus Lassa fever Mastomys natalensis Sabiá virus Unidentified rodent Brazilian hemorrhagic fever Chapare virus Unidentified rodent Hantaviruses Amur virus HFRS Apodemus peninsulae Dobrava-Belgrade virus HFRS Apodemus flavicollis Hantaan virus HFRS Apodemus agrarius Muju virus HFRS Myodes regulus Puumala virus HFRS Myodes glareolus Saaremaa virus HFRS Apodemus agrarius Seoul virus HFRS Rattus norvegicus Thailand virus HFRS Bandicota indica Andes virus HPS Oligoryzomys longicaudatus Araraquara virus HPS Necromys lasiurus Bermejo virus HPS Oligoryzomys flavescens Castelo dos Sonhos virus Unidentified rodent HPS Central Plata virus HPS Oligoryzomys flavescens Choclo virus HPS Oligoryzomys fulvescens Juquitiba virus HPS Oligoryzomys nigripes Laguna Negra virus HPS Calomys laucha Lechiguanas virus HPS Oligoryzomys flavescens Oran virus HPS Oligoryzomys chacoensis continued
From page 144...
... Rodents Chagas disease Trypanosoma cruzi NOTE: HFRS, hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome; HPS, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. aAgents listed are zoonotic and may cause significant disease in humans, may be hosted by rodent (although not necessarily exclusively)
From page 145...
... Discussion Challenges There are many challenges facing public health to effectively control zoonotic diseases related to movement of animals across international borders. At the CDC, the public health response to SARS involved participation by 866 employees including deployments to 10 foreign countries and 19 domestic ports of entry.
From page 146...
...  FIGURE 3-2 Economic impacts of selected infectious diseases. SOURCE: Reprinted with permission from Bio-era.
From page 147...
... The regulatory approach to controlling zoonotic diseases creates opportuni ties for further mitigation but also leaves gaps in public health protection. In September 2008, the FDA lifted its portion of the ban on interstate movement of prairie dogs because the agency had determined through a risk-assessment process that the virus implicated in the 2003 outbreak no longer persisted in the environment.
From page 148...
... These actions are usually reactive -- taken after an outbreak occurs rather than to proactively prevent outbreaks from known high-risk animals. This approach appears insufficient to prevent the introduction of many zoonotic diseases, especially given the high volume and speed of globalized trade in animal species and their byproducts.
From page 149...
... Recent zoonotic transmissions of infectious diseases from pets, such as tularemia, salmonellosis, and lymphocytic choriomeningitis from pet hamsters, have served as opportunities to educate the public about safe handling of animals. Pet retailers have been and can continue to be valuable partners in this effort.
From page 150...
... Molecular studies of the diversity of Plasmodium falciparum give strong evidence that it originated in Africa and advanced into Eurasia with the spread of 7 Unit of Insects and Infectious Diseases, 25-28 rue du Dr Roux 75015 Paris, France. E-mail: paul.
From page 151...
... In the peridomestic environment it remains strictly primatophilic,12 but freely lays its eggs in man-made containers. In villages close to enzootic transmission,13 water storage jars are usually the principal breeding sites; in cultures where water storage is not traditional, humanto-human transmission of yellow fever may not occur.
From page 152...
... From the seventeenth century onward, yellow fever was one of the most feared diseases, not only in Africa, but in much of the New World and in many European cities in the Old World. It was not uncommon for ships to arrive in port with dead or dying persons aboard, hence the yellow flag of quarantine.
From page 153...
... The disease continued to be a major cause of mortality in many temperate regions, long after prohibition of the slave trade. In 1870, for example, 120,000 panic-stricken people fled from Barcelona when thousands had contracted the disease after several vessels arrived from Cuba with fever onboard.15 In the United States, the great yellow fever epidemic of 1878-1879 made its way northward from Louisiana by river traffic on the Mississippi, with high mortality at every port of call.
From page 154...
... aegypti as a vector of yellow fever by Carlos Finlay in Havana, Cuba, and experimental confirmation by Walter Reed, led to major sani tation campaigns and an end to major urban transmission in most of the Americas. In the 1920s, however, it became clear that the virus had become established in an enzootic cycle in the forests of Mexico, and Central and South America, transmitted by New World mosquitoes of the genera Sabethes and Haemagogus (Reiter, 2008b)
From page 155...
... An alert from the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) prompted national authorities in Brazil to examine specimens of an Aedes species that had been awaiting identification.
From page 156...
...  INFECTIOUS DISEASE MOVEMENT IN A BORDERLESS WORLD introduction of exotic viruses. A federal regulation was implemented whereby all used tires arriving in the United States from Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, and other Asian countries where Ae.
From page 157...
...  MOBILE ANIMALS AND DISEASE A B FIGURE 3-5 Containerization. Approximately 90 percent of non-bulk cargo worldwide moves by containers stacked on transport ships.
From page 158...
... atropalpus, is suspected to have been imported from Minnesota or Quebec. 22 Unlike yellow fever, DEN exists in four distinct serotypes; in theory, a person can suffer four infections before becoming immune to the disease.
From page 159...
... aegypti breeding sites so abundant that urbanizations can be regarded as a single unit -- a factory for the vector and the virus. Unlike yellow fever, DEN exists in four distinct serotypes so in theory a person can suffer four infections before becoming immune to the disease.
From page 160...
... albopictus, was superabundant in the area. As had occurred with yellow fever in the Americas, transmission of CHIKV was by an exotic mosquito matched with an exotic virus.
From page 161...
... It is classified in the family Flaviviridae, which also includes dengue and yellow fever, but it is transmitted in an avian cycle by mosquitoes -- chiefly of the genus Culex -- that primarily feed on birds. Mammals, including humans and horses, can also be infected, but are considered "dead end" hosts because viremia is generally too low to infect mosquitoes.
From page 162...
... ; both are exotics imported from the Old World. In this context, there is a clear parallel with yellow fever; in Africa, its original range, infections in wild primates are generally asymptomatic, but in the Americas, the virus is lethal to monkeys.
From page 163...
... albopictus has joined the housefly, the flour beetle, the cockroach, the Medi terranean fruit fly, the yellow fever mosquito and many other insects that have
From page 164...
... In conclusion, with a few exceptions -- such as the enforcement of vaccination requirements -- we can expect the continued establishment of exotic species and pathogens as an inevitable consequence of modern transportation technology. Final Remark It is regrettable that in recent years, outbreaks of yellow fever, dengue, chikungunya, WNV, bluetongue, and other vector-borne pathogens, as well as the appearance of Ae.
From page 165...
... PREDICTING AND PREVENTING EMERGENT DISEASE OUTBREAKS Andrew Dobson, D.Phil. Princeton University Sarah Cleaveland, Ph.D., D.V.M.0 University of Glasgow In 1998, a mysterious new disease syndrome appeared in pigs in Malaysia; it was then diagnosed in pig handlers. The pathology in humans implied an encephalitis-like virus that could cause significant mortality.
From page 166...
... It also suggests a number of broader questions that need to be addressed if we are to capitalize on a resurgence of interest in predicting and preventing emergent disease outbreaks. The past 25 years have seen a steady stream of "new diseases" emerge and enter either the human population or populations of domestic livestock.
From page 167...
... Stage 2 occurs when a novel host species acquires an infection.a Figure 3-7.eps Stage 3 occurs when successful chains of transmission are established in the human (or redrawn &population and individualstype & seriously ill and maybroke retyped because become dashed rules die.b domestic livestock) into separate elements aOur biggest worry is that this is a human host, but costs are associated with novel infections in domestic livestock and even exotic species that may have value for tourism or as pollinators or predators of pests.
From page 168...
... We then need to examine the pathology of closely related patho gens, in their reservoir hosts and other host species they infect, and examine the factors that modify virulence and transmissibility. This is a nontrivial exercise.
From page 169...
... Similar spatial mechanisms are likely to occur as the reservoir hosts of other pathogens become increasingly contained in the fragmented patches of natural habitat that remain when humans have converted the rest of the landscape into agricultural land, shopping malls, and golf courses. If the patches of land contain too few resources to support wildlife, the reservoir hosts may well develop ways of exploiting food resources that are more closely associated with humans, thus increasing the risk of disease transmission to humans.
From page 170...
... Similarly, increased populations of domestic livestock will lead to increased contact between these species and remaining populations of wildlife. A potential disease transmission event can occur just as easily when a cow or sheep breaks through a fence and enters a wood or grassland nature reserve, as when an infected sparrow finds its way into a chicken barn.
From page 171...
... Searching for novel pathogens and understanding their potential threat and risk of crossing over will require considerable capacity-building in areas that are woefully underfunded. The world has less than 100 people trained to understand the ecology and population dynamics of infectious diseases; this is roughly com parable to the number of knee specialists in New Jersey.
From page 172...
... 1990. Update: Ebola-related filovirus infection in nonhuman primates and interim guidelines for handling nonhuman primates during transit and quarantine.
From page 173...
... Emerging Infectious Diseases 13(10)
From page 174...
... Emerging Infectious Diseases 13(9)
From page 175...
... Emerging Infectious Diseases 5(2)
From page 176...
... Emerging Infectious Diseases 11(8)
From page 177...
... Emerging Infectious Diseases 15(4)
From page 178...
... 1994. New, emerging, and reemerging infectious diseases.
From page 179...
... infectious for pigs, humans, and fruit bats. Emerging Infectious Diseases 4(2)


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