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3 Environment, Housing, and Management
Pages 41-104

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From page 41...
... The majority of poikilothermic laboratory animals are aquatic species -- for example, fish and most amphibians -- although some, such as 41
From page 42...
... TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS Terrestrial Environment Microenironment and Macroenironment The microenironment of a terrestrial animal is the physical environment immediately surrounding it; that is, the primary enclosure such as the cage, pen, or stall. It contains all the resources with which the animals come directly in contact and also Microenvironment: The immedi provides the limits of the animals' ate physical environment sur immediate environment.
From page 43...
... Adequate resources for thermoregulation are particularly important for newborn animals whose LCT is normally considerably higher than that of their adult conspecifics. Environmental temperature and relative humidity can be affected by husbandry and housing design and can differ considerably between primary and secondary enclosures as well as within primary enclosures.
From page 44...
... Micro TABLE 3.1 Recommended Dry-Bulb Macroenvironmental Temperatures for Common Laboratory Animals Dry-Bulb Temperature Animal °C °F Mouse, rat, hamster, gerbil, guinea piga 20-26 68-79 Rabbit 16-22 61-72 Cat, dog, nonhuman primate 18-29 64-84 Farm animals, poultry 16-27 61-81 aDry-bulb room temperature settings for rodents are typically set below the animals' LCT to avoid heat stress, and should reflect different species-specific LCT values. Animals should be provided with adequate resources for thermoregulation (nesting material, shelter)
From page 45...
... . Some species may require conditions with high relative humidity (e.g., selected species of nonhuman primates, tropical reptiles, and amphibians; Olson and Palotay 1983)
From page 46...
... Although this range is effective in many animal housing settings, it does not take into account the range of possible heat loads; the species, size, and number of animals involved; the type of primary enclosure and bedding; the frequency of cage changing; the room dimensions; or the efficiency of air distribution both in the macroenvironment and between the macro- and microenvironments. In some situations, the use of such a broad guideline might overventilate a macroenvironment containing few animals, thereby wasting energy, or underventilate a microenvironment containing many animals, allowing heat, moisture, and pollutants to accumulate.
From page 47...
... . To compensate, it may be necessary to adjust husbandry practices, including sanitation and cage change frequency, selection of contact bedding, placement of cages in a secondary enclosure, animal densities in cages, and/or decrease in macroenvironmental relative humidity to improve the microenvironment and heat dissipation.
From page 48...
... . However, the light experience of an individual animal can affect its sensitivity to phototoxicity; light of 130-270 lux above the light intensity under which it was raised has been reported to be near the threshold of retinal damage in some individual albino rats according to histologic, morphometric, and electrophysiologic evidence (Semple-Rowland and Dawson 1987)
From page 49...
... Noisy animals, such as dogs, swine, goats, nonhuman primates, and some birds (e.g., zebra finches) , should be housed away from quieter animals, such as rodents, rabbits, and cats.
From page 50...
... . While some vibration is inherent to every facility and animal housing condition, excessive vibration has been associated with biochemical and reproductive changes in laboratory animals (Briese et al.
From page 51...
... The primary enclosure or space may need to be enriched to prevent such effects (see also section on Environmental Enrichment)
From page 52...
... Whenever possible, routine procedures for maintaining animals should be documented to ensure consistency of management and care. Enironmental Enrichment The primary aim of environmental enrichment is to enhance animal well-being by providing animals with sensory and motor stimulation, through structures and resources that facilitate the expression of speciestypical behaviors and promote psychological well-being through physical 1 Gnotobiotic: germ-free animals or formerly germ-free animals in which the composition of any associated microbial flora, if present, is fully defined (Stedman's Electronic Medical Dictionary 2006.
From page 53...
... , as well as manipulable resources such as novel objects and foraging devices for nonhuman primates; manipulable toys for nonhuman primates, dogs, cats, and swine; wooden chew sticks for some rodent species; and nesting material for mice (Gaskill et al.
From page 54...
... Some scientists have raised concerns that environmental enrichment may compromise experimental standardization by introducing variability, adding not only diversity to the animals' behavioral repertoire but also variation to their responses to experimental treatments (e.g., Bayne 2005; Eskola et al. 1999; Gärtner 1999; Tsai et al.
From page 55...
... Socially housed animals should have sufficient space and structural complexity to allow them to escape aggression or hide from other animals in the pair or group. Breeding animals will require more space, particularly if neonatal animals will be raised together with their mother or as a breeding group until weaning age.
From page 56...
... They should be considered the minimum for animals housed under conditions commonly found in laboratory animal housing facilities. Adjustments to the amount and arrangement of space recommended in the following tables should be reviewed and approved by the IACUC and should be based on performance indices related to animal well-being and research quality as described in the preceding paragraphs, with due consideration of the AWRs and PHS Policy and other applicable regulations and standards.
From page 57...
... aSingly housed animals and small groups may require more than the applicable multiple of the indicated floor space per animal. bFrom cage floor to cage top.
From page 58...
... Other Common Laboratory Animals Tables 3.3 and 3.4 list recommended minimum space for other common laboratory animals and for avian species. These allocations are based, in general, on the needs of pair- or group-housed animals.
From page 59...
... In addition, due to conformational differences of animals within groups, more space or height may be required to meet the animals' physical and behavioral needs. Therefore, determination of the appropriate cage size is not based on body weight alone, and professional judgment is paramount in making such determinations (Kaufman et al.
From page 60...
... Agricultural Animals Table 3.6 lists recommended minimum space for agricultural animals commonly used in a laboratory setting. As social animals, they should be housed in compatible pairs or larger groups of compatible animals.
From page 61...
... Overall cage volume and linear perch space should be considerations for many neotropical and arboreal species. For brachiating species cage height should be such that an animal can, when fully extended, swing from the cage ceiling without having its feet touch the floor.
From page 62...
... 62 GUIdE FOR ThE CARE ANd USE OF LAbORATORy ANIMALS TABLE 3.6 Recommended Minimum Space for Agricultural Animals* Weight,a Floor Area/Animal,b f t 2 ( m 2)
From page 63...
... . the table to enable them to turn around and move freely without touching food or water troughs, have ready access to food and water, and have sufficient space to comfortably rest away from areas soiled by urine and feces.
From page 64...
... In some species, social incompatibility may be sex biased; for example, male mice are generally more prone to aggression than female mice, and female hamsters are generally more aggressive than male hamsters. Risks of social incompatibility are greatly reduced if the animals to be grouped are raised together from a young age, if group composition remains stable, and if the design of the animals' enclosure and their environmental enrichment facilitate the avoidance of social conflicts.
From page 65...
... Subcommittees of the National Research Council Committee on Animal Nutrition have prepared comprehensive reports of the nutrient requirements of laboratory animals (NRC 1977, 1982, 1993, 1994, 1995a, 1998b, 2000, 2001, 2003a, 2006b,c, 2007) ; these publications consider issues of quality assurance, freedom from chemical or microbial contaminants and natural toxicants in feedstuffs, bioavailability of nutrients in feeds, and palatability.
From page 66...
... -- are fed, because storage conditions may lead to variation in food quality. Most natural-ingredient, dry laboratory animal diets stored properly can be used up to 6 months after manufacture.
From page 67...
... . Periodic monitoring for pH, hardness, and microbial or chemical contamination may be necessary to ensure that water quality is acceptable, particularly for use in studies in which normal components of water in a given locality
From page 68...
... bedding and Nesting Materials Animal bedding and nesting materials are controllable environmental factors that can influence experimental data and improve animal well-being in most terrestrial species. Bedding is used to absorb moisture, minimize the growth of microorganisms, and dilute and limit animals' contact with excreta, and specific bedding materials have been shown to reduce the accumulation of intracage ammonia (Perkins and Lipman 1995; E
From page 69...
... Therefore, appropriate drying times and storage conditions should be used or, alternatively, gamma-irradiated materials if sterile bedding is indicated. Bedding should be used in amounts sufficient to keep animals dry between cage changes, and, in the case of small laboratory animals, it should be kept from coming into contact with sipper tubes as such contact could cause leakage of water into the cage.
From page 70...
... bedding/Substrate Change Soiled bedding should be removed and replaced with fresh materials as often as necessary to keep the animals clean and dry and to keep pollutants, such as ammonia, at a concentration below levels irritating to mucous membranes. The frequency of bedding change depends on multiple factors, such as species, number, and size of the animals in the primary enclosure; type and size of the enclosure; macro- and microenvironmental temperature, relative humidity, and direct ventilation of the enclosure; urinary and fecal output and the appearance and wetness of bedding; and experimental conditions, such as those of surgery or debilitation, that might limit an animal's movement or access to clean bedding.
From page 71...
... Primary enclosures can be disinfected with chemicals, hot water, or a combination of both.2 Washing times and conditions and postwashing processing procedures (e.g., sterilization) should be sufficient to reduce levels or eliminate vegetative forms of opportunistic and pathogenic bacteria, adventitious viruses, and other organisms that are presumed to be controllable by the sanitation program.
From page 72...
... during primary enclosure cleaning. Conventional methods of cleaning and disinfection are adequate for most animal care equipment.
From page 73...
... . Radioactive wastes should be kept in properly labeled containers and their disposal closely coordinated with radiation safety specialists in accord with federal and state regulations; the federal government and most states and municipalities have regulations controlling disposal of hazardous wastes.
From page 74...
... Use of pesticides should be recorded and coordinated with the animal care management staff and be in compliance with federal, state, or local regulations. Whenever possible, nontoxic means of pest control, such as insect growth regulators (Donahue et al.
From page 75...
... Medical records for individual animals can also be valuable, especially for dogs, cats, nonhuman primates, and agricultural animals (Suckow and Doerning 2007)
From page 76...
... To facilitate direct comparison of research data derived from outbred animals, genetic management techniques should be used to maintain genetic variability and equalize founder representations (Hartl 2000; Lacy 1989; Poiley 1960; Williams-Blangero 1991)
From page 77...
... It contains all the resources with which the animals are in direct contact and also provides the limits of the animals' immediate environment. The microenvironment is characterized by many factors, including water quality, illumination, noise, vibration, and
From page 78...
... Water quality parameters and life support systems for aquatic animals will vary with the species, life stage, the total biomass supported, and the animals' intended use (Blaustein et al. 1999; Fisher 2000; Gresens 2004; Overstreet et al.
From page 79...
... . The type of life support system used depends on several factors including the natural habitat of the species, age/size of the species, number of animals maintained, availability and characteristics of the water required, and the type of research.
From page 80...
... may negatively affect animal health and the efficiency of the biofilter, so species sensitive to change in water quality outside of a narrow range require more frequent monitoring. Continuous or timed flow-through systems can be used where suitable water is available to support the species to be housed (e.g., in aquaculture facilities)
From page 81...
... For fish and some aquatic amphibians, the microenvironmental air quality may affect water quality (i.e., gas exchange) , but appropriate life support system design may reduce its importance.
From page 82...
... • do not present electrical hazards directly or indirectly. Enironmental Enrichment and Social housing Environmental enrichment strategies for many aquatic species are not well established.
From page 83...
... . Space Space recommendations and housing density vary extensively with the species, age/size of the animals, life support system, and type of research (Browne et al.
From page 84...
... husbandry Food The general principles relating to feeding of terrestrial animals are applicable to aquatic animals. Food should be stored in a type-appropriate manner to preserve nutritional content, minimize contamination, and prevent entry of pests.
From page 85...
... Fully aquatic animals obtain water in their habitat or absorb it across their gills or skin. Some semiaquatic amphibians and reptiles may need "bowls" of water for soaking and drinking, and water quality should be appropriate (see Terrestrial Animals section)
From page 86...
... The frequency of cleaning and disinfection should be determined by water quality, which should permit adequate viewing of the animals, and animal health monitoring. System components such as lids on fish tanks, which may accumulate feed, may require sanitation as often as weekly depending on the frequency and type of feed and the system's design.
From page 87...
... Pest Control Terrestrial animal pest control principles apply to aquatic systems but, due to transcutaneous absorption, aquatic and semiaquatic species may be more sensitive to commonly used pest control agents than terrestrial animals. Before use, an appropriate review of chemicals and methods of application is necessary.
From page 88...
... Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci 37:64-66. Augustsson H, Lindberg L, Hoglund AU, Dahlborn K
From page 89...
... 2005. Potential for unintended consequences of environmental enrichment for laboratory animals and research results.
From page 90...
... J Anim Sci 80:1835-1845. Brainard GC.
From page 91...
... 1995. Amphibians as laboratory animals.
From page 92...
... Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci 37:71-74. Erkert HG, Grober J
From page 93...
... 1993. Temperature Regulation in Laboratory Animals.
From page 94...
... 1980. Genetic quality control of laboratory animals with emphasis on genetic monitoring.
From page 95...
... In: Reinhardt V, Rein hardt A, eds. Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, 9th ed.
From page 96...
... Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci 40:21-25. Meerburg BG, Brom FWA, Kijlstra A
From page 97...
... 1995a. Nutrient Requirements of Laboratory Animals, 4th rev ed.
From page 98...
... . Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci 40:17-21.
From page 99...
... Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci 34:93-98. Peterson EA.
From page 100...
... In: Reinhardt V, Reinhardt A, eds. Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, 9th ed.
From page 101...
... 1989. Enzyme-inducing and cytotoxic effects of wood based materials used as bedding for laboratory animals: Comparison by a cell culture study.
From page 102...
... In: Reinhardt V, Reinhardt A, eds. Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, 9th ed.
From page 103...
... 2003. Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals.


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