Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011) / Chapter Skim
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From page 1075... ...
, 3 DRI development, 24, 385–387, 393–394, Achlorhydria, 37 445 Acronyms and abbreviations, 523–526 EARs, 7, 9, 349, 351, 354–355, 385, 387, Adequate Intake (AI)
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See Indicators of adverse 384 outcomes for excess intake calcium, 7, 349, 356–359, 421–423, 463– research needs, 517–518 464, 465, 466, 467, 480–481, in risk assessment approach to DRI 1104, 1108, 1114 development, 27, 403, 515 dementia, 183 use in determination of benchmark DRI development, 24–25, 355–356, 389, intake, 17, 418 421–423, 443–445 vitamin D, 6, 10, 404, 405, 424–440, 486, 488
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From page 1077... ...
See also vitamin D dose–response, 431 Chinese ancestry or Chinese; systemic lupus erythematosus, 177 East Asian ancestry; South Africans, 179, 244. See also Gambians; Asian ancestry or South Asians Nigerians Assay shift and drift, 107–111, 365–366, Agency for Healthcare Research and 460–461 Quality (AHRQ)
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See also Osteoporosis bone loss as risk factor, 48, 60, African Americans, 296, 298 359–360 age-related, 52, 54, 55, 95–96, 193, 284, calcium supplementation, 285–290, 285, 356, 361 358, 360, 390–392 calcium balance and, 284–285 as indicator of adverse outcomes for calcium intake and, 35, 40, 274, 285–292, excess intake, 6, 405 356 as indicator of nutrient adequacy, 4, effects of caffeine intake, 64 9, 129 effects of menopause, 47–48, 52, 54–55, from military training, 234n.3, 242, 58, 360–361 275 effects of soft drink intake, 64 with osteomalacia, 49, 50, 276–277 integration of evidence, 262–277, 292– with osteoporosis, 50–52 294, 370–371 during pregnancy, 278 serum 25OHD and, 195 and serum 25OHD, 195, 215, 226– spaceflight, 46 234, 276, 366–367, 390 vitamin D intake and, 96, 292–294 vegans diet and risk for, 497 Bone marrow, 43, 46
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From page 1079... ...
fetal, 252 African Americans, 295–296 formation in the kidney, 77, 84, 90, 481 bone fracture and, 50, 51, 273, 285–292, functions 298, 357–358 bone formation, 44 calcium intake and supplementation, calcium absorption, 35, 38, 39, 89, 60–62, 175, 219–226, 270–271, 253, 260, 264, 267 273–274, 284–290, 392–393 calcium excretion, 42 effects of adolescent pregnancy, 56, 362 calcium regulation, 40–41, 89–90, effects of lactation, 57, 256, 257, 259, 157, 253 282, 283 cytokine production, 189 effects of menopause, 47–48, 52 glucose transport in the brain, 184 effects of oral contraceptive use, 501–503 immune response, 167–168 effects of pregnancy, 7, 8, 249, 250, 254, phosphorus regulation, 64, 77, 89 255, 256, 278, 279–280, 361, vascular reactivity enhanced by, 148 362 gene regulation, 90, 170 as indicator of nutrient adequacy, 4, 129 half-life, 97 measurement, 60–62 interactions with prescription drugs, 504 serum 25OHD and, 195, 196–207, 209, during lactation, 91, 259 210–216, 218–219, 226–234, multiple sclerosis treatment, 173, 174 275, 283, 368–369, 386–387 not used as a measure of vitamin D use of term, 60 nutriture, 97
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From page 1080... ...
See also Calcium balance; Serum adolescents, 7, 351, 352, 354–355, calcium 1104, 1108, 1114 absorption. See also Calcium, adults, 7, 355–361, 1104, 1108, 1114 bioavailability background of current report, 346 adolescents, 95, 352 children, 7, 351, 352, 353–355, 1104, African Americans, 260–261, 296 1108, 1114 children, 352 infants, 7, 348–351, 1104, 1108, 1114 dietary factors, 63–64 in IOM 1997 report, 16, 58–60, 61, fractional, 38–39 346, 350, 351, 404 from the gut, and increased risk for lactation, 7, 361, 362, 1104, 1108, nephrolithiasis, 411, 500 1114 impaired with rickets, 94 pregnancy, 7, 361–362, 1104, 1108, as indicator of nutrient adequacy, 1114 4, 129 summary tables, 7–8, 349, 464, 1104, infants, 52, 253, 350, 503, 505 1108, 1114 methods of measurement, 264–265 EARs.
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From page 1081... ...
See Supplements, DRI, 347–348 calcium bone health and through the life stages, 7–8 BMC/BMD, 47, 60–62, 175, 195, ULs, 7, 8, 418–420, 421–424, 464, 488, 219–226, 270–274, 285–290, 500–501, 1114–1115 392–393 umbilical cord level, 251, 254 bone accretion, 47, 53–54, 292 units of measurement, 31 bone loss, 35, 40, 274, 356 Calcium-alkali syndrome, 407–409, 418, bone mineralization, 276 422, 423 dose–response relationship, 360 Calcium balance. See also Calcium, during pregnancy, 278–279 homeostatic regulation skeletal recovery after weaning, 57, adolescents, 58 256–257, 258, 282, 283, 285 adults, 355 cancer, 144–145, 146, 147, 414–416 bone remodeling and, 45–46, 272 cardiovascular disease, 148 definition, 57 diabetes, 155, 156 estimation methods, 58, 62 excess, 37, 42, 150, 517–518.
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See also specific histological relationship with calcium retention, 269 sites rheumatoid arthritis, 175 calcitriol and, 77, 91–92, 139 systemic lupus erythematosus, 176 calcium and, 136, 137, 139 Calcium interactions as indicator of adverse outcomes for foods and food components, 62–64 excess intake, 6, 405 iron, 6, 37, 405, 416–417 as indicator of nutrient adequacy, 4, 5, magnesium, 37 129, 134–139 prescription drugs, 422 overview, 134, 135–136 vitamin D, 5, 6, 35, 60, 136, 358, 360, 369, serum 25OHD and, 138, 139 388, 484, 517 vitamin D and, 91–92, 135–139, 486 zinc, 6, 37, 405, 417 Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Calcium lactate, 37n.2 Cohort, 142, 414, 436 Calcium retention Carbohydrate, 83, 1104, 1110, 1111 adolescents, 53–54 Carcinogenesis, 91–92, 135, 143, 144 bone mass measurements, 61–62 Cardiovascular diseases calcium intake and, 58–60, 269, 270 calcitriol and, 78, 150–151 children, 268, 353 calcium and, 148, 149, 150, 407, 410, effects of dietary protein, 63 481 infants, 350, 503 as indicator of adverse outcomes for integration of evidence, 292 excess intake, 6, 405 plateau intake, 58 as indicator of nutrient adequacy, 4, 5, race considerations, 296, 297 129 regression modeling, 58 mortality, 148, 149, 150, 438 Canada overview, 147–148 calcium intake assessment, 37, 465–468 serum 25OHD and, 148–149, 150–152, changes in diet of indigenous Canadian 437–438 populations, 11, 498–500 vitamin D and, 88, 148, 149, 425, 426, compared with the U.S., 474, 476–477 437–438 national intake surveys, 10–11, 110–111, Carotenoids, 1113 457–458, 461–462, 521 Cartilage, 44, 48, 94, 174, 175 Recommended Nutrient Intakes, 15 Caucasian ancestry use of DRIs, 15 calcium accretion, 268–269 vitamin D puberty, 24 deficiency, 13–14, 486–488, 494 serum 25OHD levels, 101, 103, 104, in formula, 81 155, 173, 174, 203, 205–206, intake assessment and serum 25OHD 211–213, 215, 216 levels, 10–11, 110–111, 474– Celiac disease, 254 477, 478 Cell cycle, 91, 140, 143, 146 in milk, 79 Cell differentiation, 77, 91, 140, 143, 146, supplementation, 81 157, 176 Canadian Community Health Survey Cell proliferation, 77, 90, 140, 146, 157 (CCHS) , 461, 467, 474, 475 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)
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See also specific water, total, 1110 diseases Children, ages 4 through 8 years Chylomicrons, 83–84, 106 bone health, 195, 202–208, 218, 382–383, Clothing, 81, 100, 105, 494 384, 386 CLUE, 436 calcium, 7, 47, 53, 61, 265, 268, 349, 351, Cognitive function, 4, 129, 183–186, 188 353–354, 385, 387, 464, 465, Collagen, 43, 44, 175 466, 467, 1104, 1108, 1114 Colorectal cancer/colon polyps, 135, DRI development, 24, 385–387, 445 142–144 EARs, 7, 9, 349, 351, 385, 387, 464, 469, Communication deficits, 182 1104–1105 Competitive protein-binding assays elements, 1108–1109, 1114–1115 (CPBAs) , 107, 108, 109 macronutrients, 1110–1111 Computed tomography, 61, 62 RDAs, 7, 9, 349, 351, 354, 385, 387, 464, Constipation, 6, 37, 405, 417, 422 469, 1106–1110 Contraceptives, oral, 11, 501–503 ULs, 7, 9, 420, 421, 441, 445, 464, 469, Convulsions, 94 1112–1115 Copper, 1105, 1108, 1114 vitamin D, 9, 95, 169, 385–387, 441, 445, Cord, blood chemistry, 192, 251, 252, 254, 469, 470–473, 475, 1106, 1112 281 vitamins, 1106–1107, 1112–1113 Coronary artery disease, 147 water, total, 1110 Corpuscular indexes, 417 Children, ages 9 through 13 years Cramping, 171 bone health, 53–54, 195, 202–208, 218, Craniotabes, 255, 280 226, 280 C-reactive protein, 152, 435 calcium, 39, 53–54, 265, 354–355, 386, Creatinine, 176, 406, 408, 409, 428–429, 434 417, 465, 466, 467, 1104, 1108, Crohn's disease, 4, 129, 171–173 1114 Cross-cultural differences.
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From page 1084... ...
See Intake assessment, dietary stones, 500 effects on asthma, 168 vitamin D–fortified, 79–80, 431–432, 497 fat, 83, 148, 168, 498, 1110, 1111 Data fiber, 62, 417, 1110 assignment of "race" in study design, 295 of indigenous Canadian populations, 11, associations vs. causal or predictive 498–500 relationships, 263–264, 480, of peoples in the far north, 492 485, 517 protein, 63, 1104, 1110, 1111 challenges research needs, 521 graded doses, 12, 484, 515, 519 self-reported, 459, 460, 497 isolation of effects of single nutrient, total intake, 457, 459, 474, 483 5, 6, 11, 12, 35, 346, 485 tuberculosis, 179 limited or incomplete.
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From page 1085... ...
See Indicators of adverse E outcomes for excess intake; East Asian ancestry, 101, 103 Indicators of nutrient Eating disorders, 406, 407, 425 adequacy Eczema, 168, 169, 192 overview, 7, 12, 18–19, 23–25, 457, 458, Elderly population. See also Adults, 70+ years 479–481 bone health and serum 25OHD, 209– RDA and, 23, 345 218, 226–234, 496 total water, 1110 cognitive function, 183–186 uses, 2, 19–20, 22–23 diabetes, 154 vitamin D
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From page 1086... ...
, 459 excess intake, 6, 161, 405 Food composition databases, 36, 80, 458, as indicator of nutrient adequacy, 4, 5, 459 129, 156–167 Food sources. See also Fortified foods overview, 156–157, 194 of calcium, 36, 62–63, 413, 466, 497, serum 25OHD, 157, 158–160, 162–165, 498 166, 167, 226, 439 calcium intake estimates from, 465, 466 vitamin D, 157–165, 167, 438 of vitamin D, 79–81, 498 Far Easterners, 230, 244 vitamin D intake estimates from, 470, Fat, dietary, 83, 148, 168, 498, 1110, 1111 474, 475, 476 Fatigue, 186, 406 Forest plot, 209, 217, 234, 238–240 Females.
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From page 1087... ...
See also Infants, breast-fed; See also Men; Women Lactation Genetics calcium content, 8, 39, 52–53, 56, 57, assignment of "race" in study design, 295 256, 257, 259, 281–282, 349, asthma, 168, 170 351, 394, 503 bone mass, 46, 55 intake volume per day, 53, 349, 351 calcitriol gene expression, 146 as optimal source of nutrients, 348–349 calcium content of human milk, 53 phosphorus in, 503 genetic variation and serum 25OHD as 25OHD in, 80, 94, 257–258 biomarker, 517 vitamin D content, 80, 94, 96, 257, 494 rickets, 49, 94, 254 volume produced, 282 systemic lupus erythematosus, 176 Hydroxyapatite. See Calcium hydroxyapatite vitamin D, 140.
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From page 1088... ...
See also Formula, with sarcoidosis, 91 infant; Human milk toxic condition, 406–407 ages 0 to 6 months, 7, 23, 39, 109, 192, Hyperglycemia, 155 218, 251–252, 268, 348, 349, Hyperparathyroidism, 48, 49, 55, 95–96, 350, 383, 385, 386, 418, 419– 111, 296, 409 420, 440, 441, 442, 464, 469, Hyperphosphatemia, 407, 409n.1 1106–1110, 1112–1115 Hypertension, 4, 5, 129, 147, 151, 189–191, ages 6 to 12 months, 7, 23, 348, 349, 350– 435. See also Cardiovascular 351, 383, 385, 386, 418, 420, diseases 441, 442, 464, 469, 1104–1110, Hypervitaminosis D, 88, 93, 109, 425, 440, 1112–1115 481, 518 birthweight or length, 192–193, 251–252, Hypocalcemia, 48, 49, 94, 184, 251, 253, 254, 255, 283 254, 256 bone health, 195, 196–201, 251–252, Hypocalciuria, 189 257–258, 283, 386, 394 Hypoparathyroidism, 201, 409 breast-fed, 39, 52, 94, 201, 348–349, 350, Hypophosphatemia, 48, 253, 407 493, 494–495 Hypovitaminosis D, 259, 283 calcium absorption, 39, 52, 253, 350, 503, 505 accretion, 268 I AIs, 7, 345, 348–351 balance, 58 IARC studies, 141, 143–144, 145 bone deposition, 52 Immune function, 78, 91, 167–168, 170, DRI development, 24, 418–420 176, 177, 180 intake, 52–53, 249, 281–282, 349 Immune responses, 4, 5, 129, 167–182 RDAs, 1108 Immunoglobulins, 91, 169–170, 176, 497 total body, 268 Indian ancestry or Indians (East Indian)
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From page 1089... ...
See also Human milk; Infants, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and breast-fed Fluoride adolescents, 7, 57, 257, 282, 283, 349, overview of DRI development, 1, 15–16 361, 362, 363, 393, 394, 424, workshops, 2, 97, 127, 404–405, 482 464, 469 Institutionalized people, 37, 241, 496 calcitriol, 91, 259 Insulin, 152, 153, 154–155, 156, 170 calcium, 7, 8, 45n.3, 56–57, 256–257, Intake. See Calcium intake, assessment; 281–282, 292, 349, 361, 362, Dietary intake; Intake 464, 1104, 1108 assessment, dietary; Vitamin D DRI development, 24, 362 intake, assessment EARs, 7, 9, 349, 361, 362, 363, 393, 394, 464, 469, 1104–1105
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From page 1090... ...
See also Puberty Lumisterol, 81, 82 Menopausal status Lupus. See Systemic lupus erythematosus age of onset, 356, 359 Lymphadenopathy, 176 bone health, 8, 47–48, 52, 54–55, 209– 218, 226, 234–242, 360–361, 392 M calcium absorption, 40 calcium balance, 58, 285 Macronutrients, 1110–1111 cancer risk, 138, 141 Macrophage, 44, 90, 91, 175, 177 ethinyl estradiol and, 501–503
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From page 1091... ...
, 424, calcium retention, 58, 59–60, 268, 353 459, 497, 513, 521 calcium supplement intake, 460 National Osteoporosis Foundation, 357 cognitive function, 185 Native Americans. See American Indians; dietary intake, 460 First Nation peoples effect of latitude on vitamin D synthesis, Natriuresis, 407 104, 380–383 Nephrocalcinosis, 406, 409, 412 effects of seasonal sun exposure, 496 Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones)
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, inclusion in bone health measures, 489 418. See also Calcium, ULs; low calcium intake and vitamin D levels, Vitamin D, ULs 49 No observed effect level (NOEL)
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From page 1093... ...
, 256, 257 fracture, 278 Parkinson's disease, 158 serum 25OHD and, 192–193, 205, Periosteal expansion, 44, 46, 53 218–219, 251, 255, 279–280, Peripheral artery disease or peripheral 281 vascular disease, 147, 150, calcium, 7, 8, 39, 55–56, 96, 242, 249– 152, 437 250, 277–278, 279, 292, 349, Phosphate, 44, 49, 64, 77, 84, 89–90, 407, 361–362, 424, 464, 1104, 1108 409, 426, 500 DRI development, 24, 361–362, 393–394 Phosphorus EARs, 7, 9, 349, 361, 362, 363, 393, 394, absorption, 64 464, 469, 1104–1105 BMD and, 62 elements, 1108–1109, 1114–1115 bone formation, 44 hypercalciuria during, 424, 501 calcium regulation, 41, 49 increase in calcitriol, 90–91 deficiency, 44, 48, 50 macronutrients, 1110 EARs, 1105 multiple sclerosis remission, 174 fetal, 56, 252 non-skeletal reproductive outcomes, in human milk, 503 192–193 in milk with cream, 407 preeclampsia and pregnancy-induced RDAs, 1109 hypertension, 4, 5, 189–191, regulation by calcitriol, 64, 77, 89 250 serum, 40, 41, 50, 77, 90, 407, 426 RDAs, 7, 9, 349, 361, 362, 363, 393, 394, ULs, 1115 464, 469, 1106–1110 Physical activity. See also Falls and physical ULs, 7, 9, 419, 424, 441, 446, 464, 469, performance 1112–1115 bone fracture and, 286 vitamin D, 9, 96, 169, 182, 192, 193, 250– bone mass and, 46, 54, 273, 287, 490–491 260, 279–281, 363, 393–394, cancer, 140, 141, 142 441, 469, 1106, 1112 diabetes, 155 vitamins, 1106–1107, 1112–1113 serum 25OHD and, 105 water, total, 1110 vitamin D synthesis in the skin, 105 Prescription drugs, interactions with, 11, 87, Physiotherapy, 160–161 422, 504, 505 Phytic acid, 62 Profile of Mood States (POMS)
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From page 1094... ...
See also Preeclampsia breast-fed infants and vitamin D, 385, and pregnancy-induced 494–495 hypertension calcitriol levels, 260–261 Research needs "calcium economy," 294, 517 adverse effects of vitamin D, 424–425 calcium retention, 296, 297 background diet to calculate total level cardiovascular mortality, 438 of intake, 346 clothing and sun exposure, 105, 494 calcium intake and BMD, 273 fractures, 439 chronic diseases, 5, 486, 489 limited data for DRI development, 347 clinical trials, 5, 12, 22, 135, 404, 486 onset of breast development, 24 context, 17, 18–19 relationship between serum 25OHD and dose–response relationships, 12, 159, PTH, 260–261 346, 359, 360, 482, 484, research needs, 347, 516–517 489, 519–520. See also Sun serum 25OHD levels, 101, 103, 104, 106, exposure, DRI development 174, 260–261, 374, 431, 438, ethnic/racial considerations, 347, 439, 444, 493 516–517 Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
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From page 1095... ...
foods, 79 assays for, 107–111, 476, 484, 516, 521 serum 25OHD, 49, 235, 237, 243–248, asthma, 169–170, 181 271, 293, 366, 368, 386, 470– autism, 183 471n.16, 494 as biomarker vitamin D–dependent (VDDR I) , 49, 94, of vitamin D effect, 13–14, 96–97, 252, 254, 260, 276 263–264, 291, 293, 439, 484, Risk, use of term, 26 517, 520 Risk analysis, basic assumptions, 18–19, of vitamin D exposure, 8, 12–13, 96, 347–348 99, 293, 363, 381–382, 384, Risk assessment 480, 483, 486–488, 520 definition, 18 bone health and in DRI development, 17, 18, 26–29, 30, African Americans, 106, 208, 260– 32, 345, 403, 479, 488–490, 261, 295, 298, 439, 493 514–516 BMC, 195, 196–205, 210–218 four steps, 27 BMD, 195, 196–207, 209–218, 275, overview, 3 368, 386–387 population segments and conditions of bone loss, fractures, osteomalacia, interest, 11, 490–505 195, 275 role of dietary intake assessment, 457 calcium absorption, 213, 257, 259, Risk characterization, 11, 17, 26, 27, 29, 479 264–267, 271, 277, 284, 292, Risk communication, 18 366, 368, 388–389 Risk management, 18 children and adolescents, 195, 202– 208, 382–383, 384 distribution in healthy populations, S 294 DRI development Sarcoidosis, 91, 409 analysis and outcomes, 263–264, Saudi Arabians, 251, 259, 283 380–383 Scarring and scar tissue, 171, 173 conclusions, 366–370, 381–382, Schizophrenia, 182 486–488 School meals, 15, 354 integration of evidence, 292–294, Scleroderma, 409 370–379 Seasonal affective disorder, 186, 187 interpretation of data in the Selenium, 1105, 1109, 1115 literature, 365–366 Sensitive populations.
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From page 1096... ...
, inflammatory bowel disease and Crohn's 107, 108 disease, 172–173 Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25OHD3) , insulin sensitivity, 154 107, 108 intake assessment process Serum parathyroid hormone, 111, 174, levels for U.S.
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From page 1097... ...
See also Stroke, 147, 149, 150, 152, 158, 160, 185 Calcium, ULs Study of Osteoporotic Fractures, 213, 296 bioavailability, 63 Sugars, 1111. See also Fructose; Glucose and bone health, 209, 210–211, 217, Sun exposure 218, 219–226, 234–242, 243, altitude, 105 246, 274, 285–290, 358, 360, atmospheric conditions, 104, 105, 492 391, 417 cardiovascular diseases, 148 cancer, 137, 139, 141, 142, 144–145, Crohn's disease, 172 147, 414–416 DRI development cardiovascular disease, 149–150 assumption of minimal, 8, 98, 364, diabetes, 153, 154–155 370–371, 378–379, 389, 481, falls and physical performance, 158, 482–483 162–165 research needs, 12, 484, 516, 520 during lactation, 256 latitude considerations, 11, 98–99, percent of population which takes, 100, 101, 104–105, 136, 170, 37 174, 202, 371–383, 477–478, preeclampsia and pregnancy-induced 491–492 hypertension, 190, 191, 250 multiple sclerosis, 173, 174 rickets, 49, 243–248, 260 during pregnancy, 254 role in intake assessment, 460, 463– prostate cancer, 147 464, 466 radiation.
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From page 1098... ...
See also Sun T exposure, DRI development T cells, 91, 170 due to pre-existing disease conditions, Tachysterol, 81, 82 406, 422 Teeth, 35, 193 meta-regression analysis methods, Testosterone, 145, 213, 230 158–159 Tetany, 49, 94 methods for serum 25OHD assay, Thiamin, 1104, 1106, 1112 107–111, 476, 484. See 3-epi series, 86, 109 also Methodological Threshold effect, 141, 515, 516 considerations, assay shift and Thrombogenicity, 148 drift Thyroid gland, 40 need for long-term data, 12, 425, 485, 518 Toddlers.
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From page 1099... ...
, defined by cut-point value, 480 80, 167 indoor environments and institutionalized older persons, 241, 496 V inflammatory bowel disease, 172 influenza and upper respiratory Vaginosis, 192 infections, 180 Vanadium, 1115 multiple sclerosis, 173 Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) , muscle weakness, 156–157 92 normal calcitriol levels, 97 Vasodilation, 35, 43, 89 pregnancy or lactation, 218, 251, Vdr gene, 140, 168, 170, 172, 173, 178, 182, 253–256, 259–260, 279–280 184 prostate cancer, 146–147 Vdr-null mice, 91, 143, 148, 171, 173, 184, and serum 25OHD all-cause 251, 253, 259–260, 279 mortality, 432–435 Vegetarian or vegan diet, 11, 63, 179, and skin pigmentation, 481, 493–495 496–498 systemic lupus erythematosus, 176 Vision loss, 173 type 1 diabetes, 171 Vitamin A, 180, 1104, 1106, 1112 diabetes and, 153–155, 170, 171 Vitamin B6, 1105, 1107, 1113 DRI development Vitamin B12, 1105, 1107, 1113 analysis and outcomes, 380–383 Vitamin C, 1104, 1106, 1112 conclusions, 366–370, 480 Vitamin D
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From page 1100... ...
See Sun exposure 496 supplementation. See Supplements, excretion, 86, 88 vitamin D food sources of, 79–83, 498 synthesis in the skin, 6, 11, 81–83, 95, formation, 6, 75–77, 84–85 100–105, 481, 493–495, 520 functions and physiological actions, synthetic analogues, 78, 81n.5 77–78, 89–94, 143, 153, 156, systemic lupus erythematosus, 176–177 176, 177, 180, 184, 251 threshold effect, 141, 515, 516 hormonal action and regulation, 6, 12, ULs 515 adolescents, 441, 469, 1112 in human milk, 80, 94 adults, 441, 443–445, 469, 1112 infants, 9, 363, 383, 385, 469, 504 children, 441, 445, 469, 1112 influenza and upper respiratory development, 10, 440–446, 488 infections, 180 infants, 440–442, 1112 intake.
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From page 1101... ...
, 77, BMC/BMD and, 95, 175, 271, 274–275, 140 279–280, 386–387, 392–393 Vitamin D2 cardiovascular disease, 148, 149, 152 equivalence issues with vitamin D3, Crohn's disease, 172 92–93, 97, 519 diabetes, 155 fortified foods, 80 excess, 88–89, 424–449, 481, 486, metabolism, 86–87, 92–93 517–518. See also Adverse overview, 78 effects, vitamin D; Indicators serum level as biomarker of total intake, of adverse outcomes for excess 107, 108 intake supplementation, 81 falls and physical performance, 157–165, toxicity, 93, 426 167, 438 Vitamin D3 fractures, 390, 438–439.
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From page 1102... ...
, 138, 141, fractures, 234–242, 257, 285–286, 185, 220, 234, 285, 298, 358, 357–358, 391, 392, 438, 439 393, 411–412, 413, 422 and serum 25OHD, 209–218, 226– World Cancer Research Fund, 415 234, 235 vitamin D and calcium supplementation, 226, X 234–242 X-ray. See Duel-energy X-ray absorptiometry calcium, 40, 58, 162, 226, 234–242, 356, 357–359, 360–361, 477, 480–481 cognitive function, 185 Y depression, 188 Young adults.
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