Twenty-First Century Ecosystems Managing the Living World Two Centuries After Darwin: Report of a Symposium (2011) / Chapter Skim
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2 Eight Themes for Managing the Living World
2 Eight Themes for Managing the Living World
Pages 11-48
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From page 11... ...
Speakers described how, as a result, humankind remains unprepared to recognize and respond to many of the changes in biodiversity being brought about through a range of direct and indirect human influences on the environment. During the symposium, some speakers observed that knowledge is especially incomplete for certain groups of organisms and in certain geographic regions and environments.
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From page 12... ...
Some speakers noted that aquatic biodiversity is also inadequately understood. Mary Glackin showed that most knowledge about the world's oceans is based on information gathered in the upper 100 meters of the water column, though the mean depth of the ocean is 4,000 meters.
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From page 13... ...
Using GIS approaches, they are also increasingly integrated with other data to model species distributions and their associated environmental parameters. José Sarukhán described how the Mexican National Commission on Biodiversity (CONABIO; Box 2-2)
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From page 14... ...
Natural scientists and physical scientists have to do a lot more work with social scientists in terms of theories, concepts, and methods. What information is needed to represent ecosystem services accurately in national accounts?
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From page 15... ...
15 EIGHT THEMES FOR MANAGING THE LIVING WORLD BOX 2-2 CONABIO Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (National Commission for the Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity) Conceived as a • emand-driven research organization, d • romoter of basic (systematic, ecological, socioeconomic)
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From page 16... ...
Such data also provide the opportunity to monitor environmental change, through careful observation of changes in the biosphere itself, and to use those data to implement new interventions that serve the global public good. THEME 2: LEARNING HOW ECOSYSTEMS ARE WORKING AND CHANGING Tropical forests face a number of challenges from climate change.
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From page 17... ...
Several speakers described the environmental consequences of closer integration in the global economy and the consequent widening and deepening of international trade. Especially significant is the dispersal of pest species in general, and pathogens in particular.
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From page 18... ...
Rodney Brown similarly emphasized the necessity of taking a complete systems approach in understanding "the inescapable interconnectedness of agriculture's different roles and functions." The potential for rapid evolutionary changes, both reversible and irreversible, was demonstrated by Michael Donoghue and Andrew Hendry, who described recent results documenting the subtle effects of invasive species, and overexploitation. 3 For example, introduced, nonnative weed species of Persicaria have hybridized with native species in South America to create invasive "superweeds";4 and hunting pressure for trophies has resulted in the evolution of bighorn sheep that have smaller horns (Figure 2-2)
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From page 19... ...
Forest Service, Department of Agriculture As part of an analysis by the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis of the economic impacts of invasive forest insects and dis eases, 396 invasive species werefor Box 3-2 dates of introduction New Figure listed, and their bitmapped graph, were plotted as cumulative introductions over time by feeding guild. but average overall is 2 and axis on left are real type in regu labels on right per year, showing that improvements The lation, detection, and eradication are just item up with increases USFS logo is separate keeping in trade.
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From page 20... ...
. Current models of environmental change frequently assume little or no evolutionary change or adaptation.
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From page 21... ...
," enjoined scientists and policy makers to be cautious in proposing large-scale tinkering with the fundamentals of microbial systems that have evolved over billions of years and perform vital global biogeochemical regulatory functions through poorly understood biogeochemical systems. At a completely different scale, Ann Marie Kimball showed how rapid evolution facilitates the spread of disease-causing microbes, which can move rapidly as they adapt to new environments and also respond quickly to disease-prevention measures (e.g., resistance to antibiotics)
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From page 22... ...
Different ecosystem services, argued Sandra Díaz, depend on different characteristics of the organisms present in the ecosystem -- and many are not well understood. Speakers offered many examples of the importance of biodiversity in maintaining key ecosystem services, from the provision of stable water supplies to the stabilization of local climate.
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From page 23... ...
To avoid the destruction of the population or species, wildlife corridors, such as those deployed in the Amazon and described by Yadvinder Malhi, can allow migration and support survival, though they also require careful planning to avoid facilitating the penetration of invasive species (see Box 2-3)
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From page 24... ...
The Millennium Seed Bank Project -- coordinated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, 6 Kew -- and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault are high-profile examples of two such conservation initiatives since the 1990s. Together, hundreds of millions of stored seeds already preserve the genetic diversity of tens of thousands of plant species and millions of accessions of key crops.
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From page 25... ...
Peter Crane, February 12, 2009 Rodger Schlickeisen called for cooperation between public and private entities, and between scientists and advocates, to develop and realize appropriate strategies for biodiversity and ecosystem protection. He joined Cristián Samper in arguing that broadening public engagement and awareness is crucial, on the basis that policy makers will act only in response to the public's awareness of biodiversity loss as a problem.
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From page 26... ...
Industrial food systems are profoundly different from traditional, small-scale farming and livestock management, and insofar as they reflect a particular form of land use, a number of speakers described how that use involves trade-offs with other benefits that the land might provide, such as energy from biofuels or the maintenance of clean water systems by forests. Many speakers emphasized the complexity of the systems on which human wellbeing depends, and the importance of carefully considering the unintentional and often cascading negative effects of specific management decisions.
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From page 27... ...
The detrimental effects of carbon markets on other ecosystem services are already being observed. Yadvinder Malhi noted the possibilities for perverse trade-offs in the Amazon, such as some proposed incentives for carbon governance that maximize carbon storage without considering the many other ecosystem services of forests, which have the potential to damage, rather than preserve, tropical forest functioning.
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From page 28... ...
Alison Power, February 12, 2009 age can have undesirable consequences. David Tilman's prepared remarks7 warned how biofuel strategies could conflict with projections of new crop and pastureland requirements of 1 to 1.5 billion hectares to meet food de David Tilman was unable to attend the symposium, but a summary of his presentation 7 was given by the session chair.
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From page 29... ...
Boris Worm described the challenges confronting contemporary fisheries management, where wild fisheries output is decreasing and the number of commercial stocks that are threatened is increasing; species-specific regulation has not effectively controlled the decline in fisheries. Mary Glackin added a list of broad threats to marine biodiversity, including ocean acidification, sea-level rise, loss of sea ice, and changes in marine species distributions, adding that other issues such as shipping, marine sonar, and energy exploration and development also have ecosystem consequences that are not yet fully addressed by appropriate policies (see Box 2-4)
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From page 30... ...
is engaged in the study and management of numerous emerg ing threats to marine biodiversity. Climate change impacts are an umbrella for several threats, such as ocean acidification, sea-level rise, changes in freshwater, and loss of sea ice.
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From page 31... ...
They repeatedly emphasized the systemic risks inherent in basing policy and management on simplistic views of inherently complex systems. Achim Steiner also reminded the group that no consideration of ecosystem services can neglect the need to alleviate poverty, and Peter Raven further noted that "science cannot prescribe solutions that circumscribe human aspirations for a better life for themselves and their families." In other words, while every decision, ultimately, will respond to human needs and aspirations, many of which are conflicting, only improved awareness of the full ecological ramifications of different policy approaches offers a chance to satisfy those aspirations without further endangering the long-term health of the planet.
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From page 32... ...
Mary Glackin described how fisheries managers are extending and Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.
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From page 33... ...
She emphasized that "the United States and its international partners need to implement agreements and provide the resources to support them" through sustained investment and cooperation in observing systems, ecosystem analysis, and ongoing adaptive management in response to new understanding. Several symposium participants called for improved science and analysis during discussions on invasive species, where explosive increases in trade and other cross-border exchanges have led to increased opportunities for nonindigenous species to damage crops, ecosystems, and health.
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From page 34... ...
Several speakers described how enhancing such carbon sequestration requires a thorough understanding of how ecosystems work, from microbial mechanisms in forest soils and oceanic plankton that absorb and store carbon, to the complex interactions among species that sustain tropical forests. Climate shifts and land-use changes can select for species with particular combinations of life history characteristics and, as Sandra Díaz explained, the provision of ecosystem services can be affected in unforeseen ways.
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From page 35... ...
Numerous speakers described the obstacles to broadening the use of ecosystem science in policy, which will require that policy makers and the public understand both the economic value and the intangible value of ecosystem services. Some economists, as highlighted in the presentation by Steve Polasky, are building on the analyses of the MA to develop approaches for valuing nature in monetary terms.
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From page 36... ...
Andrew Revkin further suggested that every scientist should be thinking of ways to make his or her research understandable by the public. All three speakers emphasized the need to foster a community of science-policy professionals who are respected within the scientific community and who can also serve as conduits for effective scientific advice to policy makers.
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From page 37... ...
THEME 6: INCREASING SOCIETAL CAPACITY TO MANAGE AND ADAPT TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE Prepare for an uncertain future: a world of rapid changes in climate and vegetation, a world of increasing extreme events, a world of regime shifts, a world of weeds and diseases. Harold Mooney, February 11, 2009 In his opening remarks to the symposium, Harold Mooney offered the prospect of significant and ongoing changes to the biosphere as a result of economic development, population growth, and climate change.
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From page 38... ...
Journalist Andrew Revkin described the challenges of "growing population, growing complexity, and growing consumptive impact on this earth," and cited studies indicating that "even a well-educated person tends to go out into the media environment and find the information that reinforces what they already believe." He contended that no story that he will write, and no study that scientists will produce, will show people "in a crystal-clear, simple way, that this is the problem, this is the solution." However, as Defenders of Wildlife President Rodger Schlickeisen stated, "politicians won't save biodiversity until it's popular enough to put on a t-shirt." Increasing societal capacity to grasp the magnitude of current environmental disruptions and to adapt to environmental change resides in both scientific progress and improved public engagement. Speaker presentations returned again and again to the close connections between human and natural systems.
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From page 39... ...
Justin Ward summarized the threats to ecosystems posed by increasing economic globalization in his introduction to the session on trade, pests, and pathogens. The session's speakers described the scientific research and monitoring and economic studies needed to guide more effective policy.
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From page 40... ...
While the traditional role of these institutions in advising farming communities has emphasized maximizing production in the context of local, national, and international policies and markets, these extension offices are now especially well positioned to assist in the engagement and outreach needed to adjust current systems toward a more sustainable approach while also adjusting to the realities of climate change and the need to sustain ecosystem services. We need to take a new look at biodiversity, and develop a new and much more positive outlook.
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From page 41... ...
During the discussion on invasive species and trade, Ann Bartuska and Ann Marie Kimball highlighted the need for regulatory action spanning the local to international levels in controlling invasive species, whether the threats they pose are to agriculture and forests or to public health. The diversity of the issues emphasized that every sector must play
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From page 42... ...
Moreover, several speakers charged that these and other UN mechanisms or organizations with a mandate to address international environmental issues, including UNEP, are severely underfunded, and are hampered by the lack of enforcement authority.10 Mechanisms mandated to make investments in global environmental public goods, most notably the Global Environmental Facility, are likewise insufficiently funded. Many speakers called for the United States to play a leadership role, both in securing greater global commitment to these bodies and in enhancing their effectiveness.
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From page 43... ...
11 Given its existing expertise in environmental science, including at the local level, several speakers, including Harold Mooney and Stephen Schneider, called on the United States to play a leadership role in building this mechanism. The role of trade in the accelerated spread of invasive species offers a complementary set of challenges and opportunities for international cooperation, and Charles Perrings asserted that U.S.
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From page 44... ...
Charles Perrings suggested the establishment and funding of an international mechanism to coordinate the actions of international bodies with responsibilities for different aspects of the invasive species problem, including (in addition to the WTO) UN-related agencies with responsibility for human, animal, and plant health, such as the World Health Organization (WHO)
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From page 45... ...
• stablish and fund an international mechanism to coordi E nate the actions of international bodies with responsibilities for particular aspects of the invasive species problem. SOURCE: Charles Perrings presentation The problem of invasive species is global, and needs to be addressed at a global level by strengthening relevant Multilateral Environmental Agreements, enhancing monitoring and information, and coordinating international responses.
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From page 46... ...
That must change. Bruce Babbitt, February 12, 2009 Numerous speakers offered examples of ways in which the failure of markets to appropriately price environmental resources has resulted in ecological damage.
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From page 47... ...
He emphasized that a more sustainable approach to biodiversity and ecosystem management requires that such principles be broadly accepted and widely applied. Harold Mooney endorsed these recent efforts to extend the system of national accounts to include the option value of nature, and long-term effects on ecosystem services.
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From page 48... ...
The moment may be at hand to fundamentally transform this economic machine, which is so destructive to biodiversity." CONCLUDING THOUGHTS The eight themes that emerged from the symposium have been highlighted many times before, in many different fora, for scientists, for policy makers, and for the general public. The emphasis at the symposium, however, was not just on each theme individually but on ideas for action in all eight areas if there is to be continuing progress toward conserving and managing species and ecosystems that sustain human society and support its further development.
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