Contagion of Violence Workshop Summary (2013) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
Part II: Papers and Commentary from Speakers
Part II: Papers and Commentary from Speakers
Pages 51-146
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 51... ...
Part II Papers and Commentary from Speakers
|
From page 53... ...
. Because the homicide rates are actually lower than the suicide rates, despite many scientific claims to the contrary, apparently one would need an equally large population to prove a homicide prevention intervention is evidence-based, and neither of these two studies has been done.
|
From page 54... ...
, such types of violence include • group or mob violence; • individual violence; • systemic violence, such as war, racism, and sexism; • institutional violence, such as preventing inmates from getting the benefit of prophylactic medications to prevent hepatitis; • hate-crime violence, such as terrorism; • multicide (e.g., mass murder, murder sprees, and serial killing) ; • psychopathic violence; • predatory violence, also known as instrumental or secondary violence; • interpersonal altercation violence, also known as expressive or primary violence (e.g., domestic violence, child abuse, elder abuse, and peer violence)
|
From page 55... ...
In Canada, children from First Nations communities were removed from their families and told their culture was not acceptable, resulting in individuals within First Nations communities losing their cultural protective factors, which ultimately led to many of them engaging in the risky behaviors of suicide and intragroup homicide. Within these communities, alcoholism is common.
|
From page 56... ...
, we understand that interpersonal violence is more common in the African American community; however, from the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s, African American domestic violence decreased from 16/100,000 to 3/100,000 (Greenfield et al., 1998)
|
From page 57... ...
Protective Factors That Cultivate Resilience Against Various Types of Violence Social Fabric Prevents Contagion of Violence As director of the Institute of Juvenile Research, where child psychiatry began and where the issue of family and community violence was addressed more than 100 years ago, I am aware of a great deal of relevant history that pertains to contagion, group marginalization, and resilience or protective factors as they relate to violence. The lessons learned from this history are quite instructive to this discussion.
|
From page 58... ...
and have been proposed as a strategy of suicide prevention. A specific example of infusing protective factors to prevent suicide occurs when, in an effort to prevent copycat or cluster suicide after a successful suicide, the victim's friends are screened for suicidality and then provided with preventive services (Brent et al., 1989)
|
From page 59... ...
These efforts have led to the maxim that "risk factors are not predictive factors due to protective factors" (Bell et al., 2008)
|
From page 60... ...
This suggests that the vast majority of children and youth in South Africa are deprived of their right to live and learn in a safe environment that is free of violence or its threat. This paper will provide insights into just one approach to addressing school violence in South Africa, and into some of the lessons learned as the program has evolved and adapted based on several evaluations.
|
From page 61... ...
. The approach provides the basis for the South African School Safety Policy that is being developed; details the implementation of standardized school policies regarding learner and educator conduct, rights, responsibilities, and expectations; and requires buy-in from principals, learners, educators, school safety teams, and school governing bodies.
|
From page 62... ...
J Furlong, Eds., Handbook of school violence and school safety.
|
From page 63... ...
The consecutive addressing of protective factors outside the control of the school, and parents or caregivers. The greatest impact is seen when interventions specifically targeting school safety occur concurrently with tailored family and community interventions.
|
From page 64... ...
Once political instability results in violence, however, the consequences for children in the affected countries become even worse as violence begets more violence. In this paper, I focus on how exposure to ethnopolitical violence infects the community, the family, and the individual child with violence.
|
From page 65... ...
(2010) found that in a Palestinian sample, married women's reports of their husbands' exposure to ethnopolitical violence was associated with acts of domestic violence.
|
From page 66... ...
showed that exposure to domestic violence, community violence, and the stigma of having been a child soldier -- even though these youth were generally abducted into the armed warfare -- predicted further problem behaviors. Family and community acceptance upon reintegration, literacy, and economic opportunities helped shape resilient outcomes.
|
From page 67... ...
Conclusions War and ethnopolitical violence are contagious: exposure to it stimulates violent behavior both in those who are victimized by it and in those who observe it. Studies support the idea of ethnopolitical violence as a higher level stressor or "legitimizer," increasing other forms of violence at lower levels of the social ecology, that is, within the community, within the schools, and within the family -- with effects accruing on children's aggression.
|
From page 68... ...
, the current review focuses specifically on attempted and completed suicide. Impact of Media Reporting on Suicide Research into the impact of media stories about suicide has demonstrated an increase in suicide rates after both nonfictional and fictional stories about suicide.
|
From page 69... ...
For example, celebrity suicides are more likely and the suicides of criminals are less likely to be followed by increased suicide rates (Stack, 2003; Niederkrotenthaler et al., 2009) ; individuals with a recent history of suicide attempt and/or a concurrent severe depression are more likely to attempt suicide in the wake of a media report (Cheng et al., 2007a,b)
|
From page 70... ...
Forty-three (68 percent) respondents had been exposed to the media reporting, of whom 37 percent reported that the media stories influenced their suicide attempts (Chen et al., 2010)
|
From page 71... ...
Finally, the model confirmed that media effects, in combination with the effects of prestige and similarity biases, were capable of generating suicide clusters localized in time, but not space. Even within spatiotemporal suicide clusters, where decedents are more likely to have direct contact with one another, media reporting on suicide can play a role.
|
From page 72... ...
. Media guidelines can interrupt the transmission of suicidality by identifying the types of media reporting through which suicidality is likely to be transmitted, and by modifying the volume and content of media reporting, with resultant decreases in suicide rates.
|
From page 73... ...
The model, however, does not provide a biological mechanism that can plausibly account for the spreading of the behavior. Infectious diseases such as the flu have well-defined and well-studied causes, that is, the viruses that spread the flu from individual to individual.
|
From page 74... ...
These early studies demonstrated that there are two main classes of mirror neurons. While approximately one-third of mirror neurons activated for exactly the same action, whether performed or observed (these are called strictly congruent mirror neurons)
|
From page 75... ...
That is, some neurons activate for eye movements toward a specific sector of space, but not others. Mirror neurons for eye movements do the same.
|
From page 76... ...
However, single-cell recordings require invasive brain surgery, and their use in humans is obviously extremely limited. There is a large body of scientific literature on the study of mirror neurons in humans that uses noninvasive forms of brain investigation.
|
From page 77... ...
. These data support the idea that mirror neurons are important for the effortless, automatic understanding of the mental states of other people (Iacoboni, 2009)
|
From page 78... ...
. Conclusions Mirror neurons provide an important missing link between the social science data on contagion of violence and the model that draws similarities between contagious mechanisms in infectious diseases and contagion of violence.
|
From page 79... ...
It is striking that this literature may suggest that incarceration could in fact exacerbate violence in some cases, both within the prison walls and in the broader community. This raises significant questions about the dominant ideology that determines how governments invest in strategies to reduce violence.
|
From page 80... ...
In one early study of juveniles, 85 boys detained in California for mostly violent offenses were given a standard psychiatric screen, a semi-structured interview for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) , and self-report questionnaires measuring personality traits and defenses.
|
From page 81... ...
Half of the subjects said witnessing of interpersonal violence was the traumatizing event (Steiner et al., 1997) , indicating the vulnerability of these incarcerated youth to exposure to violence.
|
From page 82... ...
Other studies have found that domestic violence perpetrated by recently released inmates was related to frustration at joblessness, changed relationship circumstances, and displaced anger at incarceration (Oliver and Hairston, 2008)
|
From page 83... ...
At the heart of the NA approach is the recognition of two salient factors that contribute to both the problem of and the solutions to community-wide violence. The first factor is the role that historical trauma plays in community violence.
|
From page 84... ...
A tribal prosecutor from one of our communities said, "People are desensitized to the issues of rape, incest, and domestic violence and don't see how their actions hurt others." The NA approach works within the tribal infrastructure to strengthen interagency coordination and collaboration. For example, two NA communities that have historically not worked together, but whose youth attend the same high school, have recently begun collaborating on prevention activities.
|
From page 85... ...
For Alaska Native males of all ages, the suicide rate is six times higher than the national average, with teen suicide rates nearly six times the rate of non-AI/AN teens (Statewide Suicide Prevention Council, 2004)
|
From page 86... ...
or GOAN (Gathering of Alaska Natives) to support open dialogue about historical trauma, conduct an inventory of community needs, and enhance connections among organizations and individuals already working on violence prevention.
|
From page 87... ...
Cultural norms, values, and beliefs provide the informal social controls that counteract antisocial behavior, which relates to levels of community violence (Sampson et al., 2002)
|
From page 88... ...
Those of us who care about the survival of AI/AN tribes -- and the future generations -- need to come together to heal the wounds of historical trauma. II.8 CONTAGION OF VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEE WOMEN IN MIGRATION AND DISPLACEMENT Fariyal Ross-Sheriff, Ph.D.
|
From page 89... ...
. Refugee women and IDW incur gender-based violence in many forms and from diverse sources ranging from family members and people who are supposed to protect them, such as police and refugee administrators, to total strangers.
|
From page 90... ...
Transition During this third stage of forced migration, refugee women and IDW either live in refugee or IDP camps or self-settle, doubling up with families and friends in countries of first asylum, or at a safer location in their own country. Women may experience temporary feelings of relief from having
|
From page 91... ...
reported that women of refugee camps are raped each day while collecting water. Some refugee women are forced to exchange sex for protection by the police officers and other male camp residents.
|
From page 92... ...
. Discrimination is recognized as an adverse mental health risk for the refugees in general and for refugee women, in particular (Finch et al., 2000)
|
From page 93... ...
discusses a number of challenges faced by resettled refugee women, including the difficulty of making "life-and-death decisions at every stage of the migration process" (Gozdziak, 2009, p.
|
From page 94... ...
This paper will clarify (1) how violence is like infectious diseases historically by its natural history and by its behavior; (2)
|
From page 95... ...
Misdiagnosis and Mistreatment It now seems as if the problem of violence, like the great infectious diseases of the past, has been stuck -- not because we do not care enough, nor because we do not have enough money devoted to it, but because we have made the wrong diagnosis. Wrong diagnoses, in particular moralistic diagnoses, usually lead to ineffective and even counterproductive treatments and control strategies.
|
From page 96... ...
Infectious Diseases and Violence in Populations There are three main characteristics of infectious diseases in populations: clustering, spread, and transmission. Clustering in space, or spatial grouping, is simple in concept and is characteristic of epidemic diseases.
|
From page 97... ...
PAPERS AND COMMENTARY FROM SPEAKERS 97 FIGURE II-1 Clustering in cholera epidemic, Bangladesh. SOURCE: Ruiz-Moreno et al., 2010.
|
From page 98... ...
Rapid spread, well known for infectious diseases, is seen, for example, in foodborne outbreaks, flu, or severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
|
From page 99... ...
PAPERS AND COMMENTARY FROM SPEAKERS 99 FIGURE II-3 Epidemic of killings in the United States, showing waves on top of waves.
|
From page 100... ...
Infectious Diseases and Violence in Individuals Violence not only shows the characteristics of infectious diseases in populations, but also the characteristics and key concepts of an infectious disease in an individual. These characteristics are listed in Table II-1 and
|
From page 101... ...
. For the usual infectious diseases, there are several mechanisms of immunity or resistance (e.g., mucosal cell integrity, or prior antibody or cellmediated responses)
|
From page 102... ...
. In infectious disease language this is sometimes referred to as "herd immunity." Incubation periods, defined as the time from infection to evidence of clinical disease, is variable in both infectious diseases and violence.
|
From page 103... ...
These may appear as different disease states, but they are in fact caused by the same microorganism or infection for each of these diseases mentioned. Likewise there are different violence syndromes that are currently viewed as different "types of violence" to the general public, such as community violence, intimate partner violence, child abuse, and suicide.
|
From page 104... ...
. Exposure to war and political violence, particularly when accompanied by posttraumatic stress disorder, leads to being a perpetrator of intimate partner violence and community violence (Archer and Gartner, 1976; Landau and Pfeffermann, 1988; Sela-Shayovitz, 2005; Catani et al., 2008; Clark et al., 2010; Landau et al., 2010; Teten et al., 2010; Widome et al., 2011)
|
From page 105... ...
Because something common is being transmitted, likely involving common intermediate brain pathways, these different "types" of violence should be called syndromes of the same violence disease. Definitions -- Violence Is a Contagious Disease -- and Is Like an Infectious Disease Disease Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 32nd Edition (2010)
|
From page 106... ...
However, as a practitioner, I am aware of the existence of many infectious diseases in which we do not have effective antimicrobial agents nor immunization (e.g., Ebola, Marburg, many viral diseases, antibioticresistant diseases, and for many years, AIDS) , yet we still need to have effective approaches.
|
From page 107... ...
The biological mechanisms here are not well known, but may involve cortical mirror-type of circuits, which are likely more complicated than mirror neurons alone (Iacoboni et al., 2005; Uddin et al., 2007)
|
From page 108... ...
In fact for many infectious diseases, a minority of persons develop clinical disease following infection. For example, approximately 2 billion people in the world are currently infected with tuberculosis, but only approximately 9 million have cases of the clinical disease, with 1.4 million deaths per year (WHO, 2012)
|
From page 109... ...
Cure Violence disease control workers have training in modern methods of persuasion, behavior change, and changing community norms -- all essential for limiting spread of outbreaks of violence. The principles underpinning the approach come from modern knowledge of social psychology and brain research, just as the principles of controlling other infectious disease flow from understanding their underlying mechanisms and patterns of flow.
|
From page 110... ...
cities and a growing number of countries, including in Kenya to prevent or reduce election violence, South Africa to reduce and prevent community violence, and Iraq to reduce and prevent interpersonal and intertribal violence. The idea of violence as a contagious or infectious disease is rapidly catching hold.
|
From page 111... ...
There are massive implications for how to better treat urban violence, as well as for international conflicts. As we have done before -- for plague, typhus, leprosy, and so many other diseases -- we can now apply science-based strategies and, as we did for the great infectious diseases, similarly move violence into the past.
|
From page 112... ...
The human brain embodies aggressive potential. Multiple anatomical regions play complex interactive roles in mediating individual or collective aggression, including (1)
|
From page 113... ...
At least eight overarching factors contribute to the variation in observed aggressive behavior over time and space: 1. Individual genetic and epigenetic variation, for example, proaggres sive polymorphisms such as the short allelic variant of the gene for monoaminoxidase, the A1 allele of the dopamine receptor D2 gene, the short variation of a repetitive sequence in the transcriptional control region of the serotonin (5-HT)
|
From page 114... ...
, exposure to media incitement or modeling, head trauma, or, rarely, infectious disease.
|
From page 115... ...
That is, entirely apart from changes in age distribution, population frequency of proaggressive genetic polymorphisms, rates of child abuse, rates of poverty, or political oppression, scholars have noted what appears to be a cyclical pattern of the occurrence of community violence and have proposed that the spreads and contractions in the rate of such violence may represent a phenomenon that is strongly analogous to the spreads and contractions in the occurrence of infectious diseases. An abundant literature has emerged over the past 60 years examining the plausibility that the concept of contagion usefully accounts for trends in a wide variety of social phenomenon.
|
From page 116... ...
(If those societies ever discard interpersonal and intergroup violence as a behavioral tactic.) Authorities in quantitative sociology have proposed that, in such cases of contagious diffusion of behavior, independent of external factors one would expect phenomena such as the level of community violence to vary in a cyclical pattern that will roughly approximate a sigmoid curve.
|
From page 117... ...
contagion-like dissemination of aggressive behaviors may help to explain otherwise mysterious fluctuations, and (b) the early prediction of asymmetric quasi-sigmoid trajectories in the occurrence of such phenomena seems defensible.
|
From page 118... ...
Innumerable such factors have been proposed or identified -- from the population density of proaggressive genetic polymorphisms, to the occurrence of harsh discipline or parental abuse, to the rate of childhood heavy metal neurotoxicity, to the cohesiveness of the community, and to the structural stresses of deprivation and income inequality. The neurobiological mechanisms by which these factors influence the central nervous systems of participants in violence are slowly being elucidated.
|
From page 119... ...
. It is possible that one major conceptual error underlying the misguided enthusiasm for rational choice models is the untenable assumption that human brains are serial processors (Simon, 1967)
|
From page 120... ...
He or she probably exhibits different types and degrees of emotional and physiological responsiveness to loss, to perceived threat, to perceived injustice, to out-group exposure, and to the rewards of peer acceptance. I predict that empirical research will identify both emotional and biological traits that distinguish gang participants from the nonparticipant siblings.
|
From page 121... ...
This is not by any means to say that urban youth gangs and violent extremist groups are identically structured or motivated. In conversations with members of Los Angeles gangs and with members of Hamas, both similarities and differences emerge.
|
From page 122... ...
• High housing density psychodynamic schools psychodynamics • History of actual • Access to a motor influences • Insufficient focus of • Mood disorder major loss vehicle • Negative older sibling schools on preparation • Proaggressive • History of actual • Anonymity afforded or peer influence for next-generation jobs endophenotype victimization by large streets/ • Social network • Inadequate funding for • History of traumatic • Media dissemination freeways influences after-school programs brain injury of violence and violent • Access to a weapon • Widespread social • Inadequate funding for • ADHD role models • Awareness of ready disaffection violence intervention • Autism spectrum escape routes and • Social learning of programs disorder hideouts violence • Inadequate funding for • Atypical steroid or • Lower socioeconomic violence intervention peptide hormone status research metabolism • Relative deprivation • National and local • Other neuroatypicality • Income inequity fiscal policy facilitating • Perception of major • Poor job prospects unemployment loss • Poor marriage • Welfare and tax policies • History of prospects facilitating single victimization motherhood • Frustration of • Right wing facilitation aspirations of nearly universal access to guns
|
From page 123... ...
TABLE II-3 Continued Physical Social Vector or Agent Environmental Environmental Personal Factors Factors Factors Factors Policy Factors • Attribution of that • Weak culture of • Government facilitation frustration to others scholastic achievement of corporate arms sales • Need for identity • Historical reasons for • Lax oversight of media consolidation distrust of police and representations of • Perceived prejudice other authorities violence • Perceived injustice • Social prejudice • Inadequate oversight • Strong personal gang • Social ignorance and correction of police identity regarding the supposed and jail brutality • Perceived need deterrent efficacy of • Political climate of to defend gang harsh sentencing disparaging minorities status (e.g., to earn • Reasons for the • Dysfunctional reputation or to escape perpetrator to doubt immigration policies from leva a) the justice system • Political pressure for • Perceived financial • Strong gang in-group creating the appearance need identity of being tough on crime • Alienation from • Perception of gang • Mismatch between alternative identity and/or neighborhood justice and sentencing groups (family, church, collective jeopardy guidelines school, team)
|
From page 124... ...
TABLE II-3 Continued 124 Physical Social Vector or Agent Environmental Environmental Personal Factors Factors Factors Factors Policy Factors Event • Neuroendocrine • Perceived vulnerability • Darkness • Unplanned or planned • Politically influenced status at the time of of targets • Isolation encounter with out- maldistribution of law confrontation • Lack of video group members enforcement resources • Autonomic nervous surveillance • Special animus toward nearby the scene system status • Presence of attractive particular out-group • Perceived threat material goods members • Attribution of ill intent • Presence of peer gang • Perceived disrespect witnesses • Risk/benefit calculation • Presence of a female • Perceived fiscal the actor wishes to opportunity (e.g., impress shoes, jewelry, cars) • Absence of other witnesses Post- • Enhanced self-esteem • Reinforcement of • Ready escape routes • Enhanced in-group • Rarity of meaningful event or perceived glory a narrative of the and hideouts respect changes in gang • Relief of internal necessity of violent • Limits on technology • Social promotion promoting public tension actions and the low of tracking • Enhanced access to policies, even after the • Enhanced personal risk of consequences fertile females worst instances of gang fiscal status (e.g., due • Social networks violence to robbery)
|
From page 125... ...
TABLE II-4 Haddon Matrix for Violent Extremist Groups: Known or Suspected Risk Factors for the Occurrence and Dissemination of Political Violence Physical Social Vector or Agent Environmental Environmental Personal Factors Factors Factors Factors Policy Factors Pre-event • Gene variations • Fetal environment • Inadequate physical • Childhood • Political oppression impacting in-group • Environmental factors defenses (especially familial) • Systematic prejudice affiliation/out-group causing epigenetic • Insufficient police/ psychodynamic in laws, housing, derogation, perceived variation military presence influences education, or injustice, moral • Childhood biological • Ability to travel • Widespread social employment against certainty, aggression influences • Anonymity afforded disaffection out-groups • Acquired variations • History of actual by large cities • Social learning of • Educational systems in in-group major life losses • Access to weapons, violence biased against out affiliation/out-group • History of actual including WMDs • Positive social image groups derogation, perceived victimization by out- • Awareness of ready of extremist role • Government injustice, moral group escape routes and models facilitation of certainty, aggression • Media dissemination/ hideouts • Communal support corporate arms sales • Pro-aggressive glorification of for extremist group • Mismatch between a endophenotype extremist ideology • Social network government's stated • Personal and actions influences and actual values psychodynamics • Exposure to • Poor control of media • Depression charismatic ideologues representations of • Frustration of • Collective moral terrorist ideology and aspirations condemnation of behavior • Attribution of out-group • Out-group police, that frustration to • Fear of challenges to military, and judicial political out-group social or sexual order policies blind to • Atypical steroid or from out-group justice or likely to be peptide hormone • Perceived social interpreted as unjust metabolism injustice 125 continued
|
From page 126... ...
TABLE II-4 Continued 126 Physical Social Vector or Agent Environmental Environmental Personal Factors Factors Factors Factors Policy Factors Pre-event • Neuroatypicality • Perceived threat • Poor oversight and P • erception of major against the in-group correction of police loss • Perceived social or and jail brutality • Perception of religious requirement • Political climate victimization for extremist of disparaging N • eed for identity behaviors minorities consolidation • Historical reasons to • Failure of moderation • Perceived prejudice distrust authorities of political rhetoric • Perceived injustice • Actual social about the in-group by P • erceived need to prejudice the out-groupa prove oneself to • Poor job prospects • Dysfunctional group • Poor marriage immigration policies • Strong personal prospects • Discriminatory laws extremist in-group • Strong culture of • Unilateral actions identity antisocial punishment by the out-group, • Frequent religious • Historical disputes especially those likely observance over territory/ to be perceived as resources arrogant, culturally • Inadequate defensive insensitive, or unjust intelligence • Institutional • Strong extremist in- failures to recognize group identity connections between • Groupthink government policies denying risk and and extremism vulnerabilities
|
From page 127... ...
TABLE II-4 Continued Physical Social Vector or Agent Environmental Environmental Personal Factors Factors Factors Factors Policy Factors Pre-event • Out-group cultural • Occupation of or insensitivity other violations • Out-group resistance of sovereignty to examining the (e.g., political justice of their own meddling, targeted actions assassinations, presence of military "advisors," drone attacks, etc.) • Imposition of alien political systems such as "democracy" Event • Neuroendocrine • Perceived • Physical access to • Usually carefully • Politically influenced status at the time of vulnerability of target planned encounter gaps in defense attacks targets with out-group • Autonomic nervous representatives; system status presence of peer • Emotional status witnesses; sluggish, • Sufficient self control poorly coordinated for risky or suicidal defensive responses militant action 127 continued
|
From page 128... ...
TABLE II-4 Continued 128 Physical Social Vector or Agent Environmental Environmental Personal Factors Factors Factors Factors Policy Factors Post-event • Enhanced self-esteem • Ready escape routes • Enhanced in-group • Ineffectual focus on and/or perceived and hideouts respect retaliation glory • Foreign safe havens • Social promotion • Pandering to • Satisfaction • Limits on technology • Enhanced access to domestic political • Relief of internal of tracking fertile females agendas at the tension • Social networks expense of evaluating • Containment or supporting and addressing root denial of remorse concealment causes and impartial empirical analysis of effectiveness of current strategies a E.g., Bush, 2001, "this crusade, this war on terrorism is going to take a while."
|
From page 129... ...
. In these preliminary Haddon matrixes, the content of each cell is based on empirical research, but does not provide weightings in terms of scientific defensibility for each proposed causal factor.
|
From page 130... ...
1991. Infectious diseases of humans: Dynamics and control.
|
From page 131... ...
2008. Building protective factors to offset sexually risky behaviors among black youths: A randomized control trial.
|
From page 132... ...
2010. Sierra Leone's former child soldiers: A longitudinal study of risk, protective factors, and mental health.
|
From page 133... ...
2012. The impact of media reporting of the suicide of a singer on suicide rates in Taiwan.
|
From page 134... ...
2011. Violence against women is strongly associated with suicide attempts: Evidence from the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence against women.
|
From page 135... ...
2009. A social-cognitive-ecological frame work for understanding the impact of exposure to persistent ethnic-political violence on children's psychosocial adjustment.
|
From page 136... ...
2010. Exaggerated and disconnected insular-amygdalar blood oxygenation level-dependent response to threat-related emotional faces in women with intimate-partner violence post traumatic stress disorder.
|
From page 137... ...
2003. Community violence exposure, social cognition, and aggression among urban elementary school children.
|
From page 138... ...
2009. Imitation, empathy, and mirror neurons.
|
From page 139... ...
2002. Hear ing sounds, understanding actions: Action representation in mirror neurons.
|
From page 140... ...
1986. Cambodian refugee women at risk.
|
From page 141... ...
2007. Infectious disease epidemiology: Theory and practice.
|
From page 142... ...
BMC Infectious Diseases (10)
|
From page 143... ...
2010. The relationship between general population suicide rates and the Internet: A cross-national study.
|
From page 144... ...
2007. The self and social cognition: The role of cortical midline structures and mirror neurons.
|
From page 145... ...
2003. Historical trauma response among Natives and its re lationship with substance abuse: A Lakota illustration.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.