In the Mind's Eye Enhancing Human Performance (1991) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
Pages 57-79
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 57... ...
4Modeling Expertise Modeling an expert literally means watching and imitating what an expert does. For instance, in learning a motor task such as serving in tennis, it would mean a novice's observing how the tennis teacher throws her elbow back and how far she reaches behind her back with her racket.
|
From page 58... ...
For example, suppose that a trainee is asked to learn to diagnose a fault when the instrument panel shows three problems: warning light A is flashing (condition A) , dial B is off (condition B)
|
From page 59... ...
knowledge base, the way that knowledge is organized, and processing strategies to solve problems. Since expertise is based on knowledge, which in turn generates the actions that experts take, we focus in the third section on the difficult process of extracting an expert's knowledge.
|
From page 60... ...
Modeling Modeling cognitive tasks requires that the expert explain ("externalize") as much of the process that underlies his or her actions as possible.
|
From page 61... ...
first to quadratic, then to linear equations. The expert then observes a pattern in the solution of linear cases -- that the roots are reciprocals of each other.
|
From page 62... ...
difficulties. Interspersed with prompts were feedback (such as remarks about the quality of the summary or definitions of terms)
|
From page 63... ...
of ambiguity, conflicts, and so forth, which will allow the student to modify his or her own problem-solving or decision-making processes. Reflection seems to involve complex processes: since it is known that confrontation by a teacher is not necessarily an effective means of instruction, it is not clear why self-perceived conflicts as obtained through reflection would be effective at promoting learning.
|
From page 64... ...
One of the most widely used laboratory measures of expertise is recall. Experts such as chess masters can remember a far greater number of chess pieces from a chess board than can a beginning player.
|
From page 65... ...
at the chessboard before they will remember the locations of all the chess pieces (Chi, 1978)
|
From page 66... ...
playing. Chase and Simon (1973)
|
From page 67... ...
they "see" the conditions. It should be stressed that the conditions are visible for all to see, but only the experts realize the import or meaningfulness of what is seen.
|
From page 68... ...
the cases are drawn from other dinosaurs, in fact, dinosaurs from the same family; in contrast, novices use other animals as comparative cases from which to reason analogically. Similarly, Schauble et al.
|
From page 69... ...
be malignant. This declarative knowledge would lead an expert to scan the two targeted area consecutively.
|
From page 70... ...
ELICITING KNOWLEDGE FROM EXPERTS Because experts' knowledge is complex, multifaceted, and often tacit, the problem of eliciting what experts know is a nontrivial problem. Different techniques yield different forms of knowledge, some declarative and some procedural.
|
From page 71... ...
actions is too coarse a method to capture the underlying procedural knowledge. Nevertheless, overt behavior in the course of performing a task is more likely to provide knowledge of the procedures than experimental laboratory-type tasks.
|
From page 72... ...
skills in a way to ensure transfer and learning with understanding. This section discusses three approaches: direct instruction, computer-aided support systems, and cognitive apprenticeship.
|
From page 73... ...
LeFevre and Dixon (1986) found that subjects actually prefer to use the example information and ignore the written instruction when learning a procedural task.
|
From page 74... ...
system such as SHERLOCK (Lajoie and Lesgold, 1989) can solve a specified set of problems, and a system such as the Intelligent Maintenance Training System (Towne and Monroe, 1988)
|
From page 75... ...
routes may not be obvious, especially if a great deal of content knowledge is needed. Furthermore, monitoring a student's own understanding demands complex processing, and it is not clear that this is undertaken normally by tutors.
|
From page 76... ...
a great deal of domain knowledge. However, it has been shown to be quite effective in enhancing the learning of basic skills, such as reading (Palincsar and Brown, 1984)
|
From page 77... ...
Brown, A.L., and A.S. Palincsar 1989 Guided, cooperative learning and individual knowledge acquisition.
|
From page 78... ...
knowledge-based systems. International Journal of Man–Machine Studies 26:533-550.
|
From page 79... ...
Reitman, J 1976 Skilled perception in GO: deducing memory structures from inter-response times.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.