Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation, Adaptation, and the Science Base (1992) / Chapter Skim
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From page 869... ...
Index A Acid rain cloud stimulation and, 82, 457, 459, 832-833 forest threats, 425 fossil fuels and, 238 nitrous oxide precursor, 321 sulfur dioxide precursor, 238, 336, 457, 832 Adaptation, 706. See also Costs: adaptation agriculture, 39, 45, 77-78, 502, 505 506, 509, 516-517, 561-566, 634, 635, 677, 685 animals, 37, 46, 503, 581, 676, 686 assumptions, 517-521 and biological diversity, 40, 78-79, 513, 579, 580-581, 690 to carbon dioxide concentration, 509, 551-555, 616 cities, 45, 85, 506, 635 classes of, 516-517 coastal settlements, 45, 505, 608-609 626, 635, 636, 685-686 costs of, 34, 85, 505, 541, 680-681, 686 defined, 840 developed nations, 514 developing nations, 565-566, 632, 659, 688 difficulty of, 84-85, 657, 659 869 economic growth and, 507, 519, 626 ecosystems, 37, 39, 40, 46, 502, 504n, 505, 509, 525, 575, 577, 675, 685, 686 electric power generation, 41, 599, 601-602, 605-606, 654, 675 environmental consequences of, 504n, 659 forestry, 506, 569, 572, 634, 635 forests, 39, 40, 45, 505, 525-526, 571-575, 577, 634, 636, 677 government policies, 512, 538, 631632 greenhouse gas effects of, 574 human activities, 36, 37, 44, 47, 502, 506, 527-530, 676, 685-686 human health, 41-42, 44, 45, 505, 615-620, 677 human settlements, 41, 608, 611-615 industry, 44, 45, 504, 606-607, 677, 685 investment in, 43, 503, 508, 512-514, 527-528, 530, 535, 537, 685 irrigation, 78, 537, 559, 562-563, 564-565 limitations on, 43-44, 502-503, 654 marine environments, 590-591 markets and, 34, 509, 512, 521-522 methods of, 36-37, 525-530 natural landscape, 39, 40, 45, 505, 551, 575, 578-582, 635, 677
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From page 870... ...
404, 798-799 mechanization, 804-805 methane emission, 376, 393, 394-395, 799-800, 805 methane emission reduction, 394, 395-401, 404, 799, 800-805 mitigation costs, 60, 400, 401, 403 404, 484, 489, 684, 802-803, 806 mitigation intervention effects, 497 mitigation policy options, 58, 157, 396-397, 399-401, 403-405, 471, 480, 800-806 nitrous oxide emission, 8, 162, 376, 393, 398, 682 nitrous oxide emission reduction, 402 404, 805, 806 precipitation changes and, 34, 39, 44 45, 557, 654 radiative forcing, 161 research, 39, 77-78, 398-399, 404, 509, 557, 690, 799 soil moisture in, 136 technological improvement, 405, 509, 799 temperature changes and, 39, 558, 559, 561 water resources and, 503, 528, 559, 560, 562-563, 602, 654 Agung, Mount, volcanic eruption, 451 Air conditioning adaptation technology, 37, 531
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From page 871... ...
, 206, 218, 219 Ammonium sulfate, 833 Animals. See also Livestock adaptation to climate change, 37, 46, 503, 581, 676, 686 biological diversity, 513 carbon dioxide enrichment and, 38-39, 576 carbon sequestration, 798 871 impacts of climate change on, 37, 3940, 47, 576, 578, 584, 586, 587, 589 work animals, 395, 398, 799-800, 801, 804-805 Antarctica oceanic iron fertilization, 445, 446, 459 ocean mixing, 96-97, 446 ocean nutrients, 443 precipitation, 154 stratospheric ozone, 125, 377, 450, 849 stratospheric temperature, 125 West Antarctic Ice Sheet, 25, 26, 141, 636n.4, 680 Appliances chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 384385, 471, 479 conservation supply curves, 714-715 efficiency improvements, 55, 212, 216, 217, 219, 384-385, 468, 476 energy consumption, 201, 208, 209, 215-216, 218-219, 710 regulatory standards, 209n, 219, 227, 233, 240 Archimedes principle, 819, 821 Arctic Ocean, 680 oil reserves, 604-605 Asia deforestation, 11 energy consumption, 236 land use, 798 population growth, 415, 417 precipitation, 136 refugee migration, 622 rice production, 404, 801 work animals, 395?
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See also Transportation energy management air conditioning, 385-386, 471, 479, 793, 795 air pollution, 321, 614 carbon dioxide emissions, 312, 334 conservation supply curves, 751 consumer preference for, 314, 322, 473, 731 energy consumption, 286, 288, 310311, 313, 728 fuel economy index, 287, 288, 727, 754 fuel economy technology, 33, 732, 733-735, 739-741
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From page 873... ...
, 229-230 Botanical gardens, 580 Bougainvillaea, 580 Brazil agriculture, 798, 799 alternative transportation fuels, 304 economic development, 417, 418 electricity production, 236 orange juice industry, 556 Building codes, 75, 233, 240, 472 Buildings, residential and commercial, 166 barriers to efficiency implementation, 225-226
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From page 874... ...
. cost-effectiveness of conservation, 205, 208, 213, 483, 683, 710 costs of implementation, 60, 212, 213214, 220-221, 240, 476, 489, 684, 713 electricity conservation potential, 75, 204-213, 224, 240 electricity consumption, 201-203, 205, 206, 215-216, 219, 220, 225, 237 electricity efficiency measures, 55, 214-216, 468, 476, 714-715 electricity prices, 208, 209-210, 213, 226, 709 energy consumption, 201, 202-203, 205, 225, 261 fuel switching, 56, 221-222, 223, 224, 241n.9, 469, 476 greenhouse gas reduction potential, 60, 203, 212, 213-214, 220-221, 223-224, 239-240, 483, 489, 713 mitigation policy options, 53-54, 5556, 227-237, 239-240, 468-469, 476, 483, 684 national demonstration projects, 229233 new buildings, 222-223 nongreenhouse benefits and costs, 237-238 oil and gas efficiency, 56, 220-221, 224, 240, 469, 476 research and development needs, 238239 residential appliances, 55, 209, 212, 215, 218-219, 233, 468, 476, 710, 714-715 residential lighting, 55, 212, 215, 216217, 468, 476, 714-715 residential space heating, 55, 206, 212, 215, 468, 476, 714-715 residential water heating, 55, 212, 215, 217, 468, 476, 714-715 solar heating, 364, 367 white surfaces, 55, 212, 216, 241n.5, 468, 476, 714-715 C Calcium carbonate, 278 California agriculture, 37, 531, 594, 803 alternative transportation fuels, 304 climate change and electric demand, 601 co-generation, 264 electric energy conservation, 220, 222, 232-233, 273 geothermal energy, 343 ocean temperatures, 589 population migration, 623 solar energy, 344 transportation management, 311, 322, 324 utility regulation, 213 water resources, 400, 529, 545, 594, 803 California Energy Commission (CEC)
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From page 875... ...
. See also Carbon dioxide enrichment airborne fraction, 840 atmospheric concentration, 3, 13, 14, 92, 146, 153, 160, 667 adaptation to, 509, 551-555, 616 anthropogenic contribution to, 3, 27, 89, 92, 93, 94, 97n.2, 146, 330 climate models of, 3-4, 20, 29, 111-113, 124, 125, 669 doubling scenario, 3-4, 20, 37, 102-103, 105, 111-112, 148, 153-154, 330-332, 669 greenhouse warming contribution of, 3, 27, 89, 93, 663 ice core record, 91, 93, 97n.1, 443 ocean fertilization and, 444, 446 past increases, 3, 12, 27, 91, 93, 94, 153, 443, 663-665 atmospheric lifetime, 12, 13, 92, 93, 146, 160, 381, 382, 666, 667 carbon equivalent of, 681 conservation supply curves, 714-715 costs of mitigation, 171, 475 buildings sector, 60, 212, 213-214, 220-221, 240, 476, 489, 684, 713 carbon taxes and, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 184, 790-791, 836 cloud stimulation, 455-456.
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From page 876... ...
876 INDEX natural gas, 158-160, 308, 330 332, 335, 338-339 natural gas power plants, 355, 789 oceans, 80, 846 oil burning, 158-160, 331, 332 population growth, 418, 419, 809 811 transportation sector, 286, 287, 306, 307, 323, 334, 731-732, 760 IJnit:ed States, 9-11, 158-160, 164, 165, 168, 334, 688 wood burning, 5, 11 emissions reductions buildings sector efficiency, 203, 212, 213-214, 223-224, 239 240, 261-264, 282, 354, 487, 711, 721-722 coal-fired plants, 338, 353, 355 356, 602 co-generation, 264-266, 282, 346, 476, 483, 722-723 cost-effectiveness of, 33, 49, 51, 266, 356, 467, 483, 484, 486 deforestation prevention, 428, 812 813 electric power plant collection, 58, 76, 351-353, 372, 471 electric power plant efficiency, 213-214, 221, 239-240^ 354, 355-357, 711 energy efficiency, 60, 192- 193, 259 energy supply systems, 356-357 fossil fuels, 76, 220-221, 240, 257-258, 351, 370, 442-443 fuel switching, 221, 256, 257-258 geothermal energy, 343 industrial energy conservation, 256, 257-258, 259, 261-266, 269, 270, 271, 279, 282-283, 717 integrated energy systems, 346, 347 nuclear power generation, 341 parking management, 760, 761 renewable energy sources, 342 solar energy, 344 transportation fuel efficiency, 298, 312, 324 United States, 177, 221, 223-224, ·239-240, 356-357 feedback mechanisms, 104, 154 global warming potential, 163-164, 167, 381-383 greenhouse warming contribution, 150, 151, 153-154, 376, 378, 380 in methane generation, 94 mitigation policies benefits and costs, 171, 473 cloud stimulation, 459, 832 cost-effectiveness of, 33, 49, 51, 266, 356, 467, 483, 484, 486 effects on developing nations, 635 energy supply systems, 368, 370 industrial sector, 272, 273, 275, 276, 277 ocean biomass stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 433, 443-446, 459, 472, 481, 482, 486, 683 ocean disposal, 58, 345, 351, 353, 471 reforestation, 77, 437, 439-441, 442, 459, 487-490, 814-815 renewable energy sources, 342 sunlight screening, 450, 459, 824 ocean absorption of, natural, 12, 93, 94, 135, 442-443, 672 plant and tree uptake, 5, 40, 76, 77, 154, 437, 666 precipitation interactions, 137, 555 radiative forcing, 15, 102-103, 105, 148, 150, 668, 670, 681-683 commitment to future warming, 18, 149, 150, 163-164, 670 contribution to warming, 12- 13, 158, 167, 666-667 timing of mitigation and, 193, 194 unaccounted-for emissions, 12, 93-94, 666 Carbon dioxide enrichment (fertilization) and agricultural production, 38-39, 78, 558, 560-561, 566 and animals, 38-39, 576 and biomass production, 80, 81, 555, 691 climate model simulations, 558, 559, 560 and corn and wheat production, 551, 552, 553, 558, 559, 562
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From page 877... ...
anthropogenic emissions, 146, 147, 386-387 atmospheric concentration, 95, 146, 386 global warming potential, 381, 386 London Protocol phaseout, 74, 96, 377, 386 ozone depletion, 386 radiative forcing, 148, 150, 163 Caribbean Sea, 588, 589, 628 Cement manufacturing, 160, 165, 178, 256 Chemical industry, 389 co-generation, 264 energy consumption, 248, 249 energy use reduction, 266, 269, 280 877 Chemical pollution, 44, 505, 509 Chemical reactions, atmospheric, 12, 59, 81, 94, 146, 158, 161, 332, 450 Chernobyl nuclear accident, 236 Chichon, E1, volcanic eruption, 451 China chlorofluorocarbon use, 377, 390 climate change, economic effects, 604 coal-fired generating, 236, 241242n.10, 335, 336 coal reserves, 65, 332 greenhouse gas emissions, 9, 65 land temperatures, 120, 124 refugee migration, 627 rice production, 395, 801 sea levels, 140 Chlorine atmospheric reduction, 391, 450 ozone depletion, 377, 380, 393 stratospheric dust and, 450, 451, 460 Chlorocarbons (CC) , 15, 18, 149, 376, 377, 381 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
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From page 878... ...
air pollutant regulations, 321 greenhouse gas emission reduction, 53, 70, 408 halocarbon regulations, 377, 378, 392 sulfur dioxide emission allowances, 272, 369 Clean Coal Technology Program, 336337 Cleaning solvents, 9S, 386, 387, 792, 793, 794 Climate, 22-25, 666. See also Climate change adaptation to, 30, 38, 515-516 agricultural sensitivity to, 556 assessment of impacts, 508 cloud effects, 106-107, 108-109 INDEX data collection and monitoring, 43, 125, 129-132, 510 defined, 515, 842 ecosystem effects, 136-137 feedback mechanisms, 100, 103 in general circulation models, 19-22 geoengineering effects on, 81-82, 435, 436 greenhouse gas effects, 17, 19, 26-27 human health effects, 617 human understanding of, 81, 100, 436 natural variability, 19, 124, 513, 515 oceans and, 442-443 radiative forcing, 102-103, 105 research needs, 71, 80 risks, 512 and sea level change, 25, 141 solar radiation effects, 14-17 stabilization, 466, 467 volcanic eruptions and, 435 water resource sensitivity to, 592, 594 Climate change, 515.
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From page 879... ...
See also Coal-fired power plants carbon content, 331, 332 in carbon dioxide collection, 351 Chinese consumption, 65, 236, 241242n 10 consumption reduction, 169, 203, 224, 357, 369, 537 cost of emission reduction, 356, 493 energy supply share, 330, 333, 334, 335, 371, 788 ethanol production uses, 342 exporting nations, 630 health effects, 32-33 industrial consumption, 249 methane emissions, 332, 369 methanol derived from, 305, 306, 307 nitrous oxide emissions, 8, 162, 682 prices, 258, 347 resource reserves, 65, 331, 332, 336 social costs, 347, 369 steel industry use, 345 synthetic fuels from, 775 U.S. consumption, 158-160, 334, 335 Coal-fired power plants acid rain contribution, 32-33, 336 advanced coal technology, 57, 75, 336-338, 353, 371, 470, 479, 788 buildings sector use, 201, 220, 224 carbon dioxide emission, 158-160, 331, 332, 335, 338, 355
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From page 880... ...
See Family planning services Conversion tables, 847-848 Cooking, 55, 212, 217, 468, 476, 714715 Cooling, 55, 212, 217, 468, 476, 714715. See also Air conditioning Cool Water Facility, 337, 339 Coral reefs, 587, 588, 591 Corn Belt, 530, 558, 561 Corn production carbon dioxide fertilization and, 551, 552, 553, 558, 559, 562 climate change and, 530, 558, 560561, 562, 563, 564, 565 diseases, 557 ethanol feedstocks, 308, 323, 342 Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
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From page 881... ...
See also Cost-effectiveness; Costs and benefits, nongreenhouse; Social costs adaptation, 34, 85, 505, 541, 680-681, 686 agriculture, 505, 506, 543, 550, 675, 678, 686 discount rates and, 512-513, 519, 535-537, 634 forestry, 543, 573, 678, 686 human settlements, 545-546, 550, 611-613, 614, 679 indirect, 502, 659 industry, 545, 679, 686 natural landscape, 544, 575-576, 678 population migration, 45, 505, 546, 677, 679 sea level change, 43, 188, 506, 535, 606, 611-612, 614 water resources, 544-545, 679 wetlands, 575-576 climate hazards climate change, 188, 189, 676-677 drought, 542, 543, 550, 678 flooding, 542, 550, 678 heat waves, 542, 678 hurricanes, 541-550, 678 environmental externalities, 74, 272 273, 504n, 512, 709-710 full fuel cycle costs, 334-335 mitigation, 49, 171, 465, 475 agriculture, 60, 400, 401, 403-404, 484, 489, 684, 802-803, 806 aircraft efficiency, 296, 298 alternative transportation fuels, 304, 478, 484 biomass, 348, 349, 444-445, 459, 482, 779-783
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From page 882... ...
882 INDEX buildings sector efficiency, 60, 212, 213-214, 220-221, 240, 476, 489, 684, 713 carbon taxes and, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 184, 790-791, 836 chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 60, 173, 175, 387, 388, 389, 458, 684, 792-796, 838 cloud stimulation, 455-456, 457, 482, 486, 830, 831, 833 cost modeling, 49-50, 174-180, 181, 836, 837, 838 deforestation prevention, 428, 813 electric power generation, 354, 355, 477, 479, 711, 789, 790 791 geothermal energy, 343, 356, 788, 789 greenhouse gas emission reduction, 33, 50, 174, 175, 177, 182, 190 193, 836-838 halocarbon emissions, 60, 479, 484, 489, 684 hydroelectric power, 356, 479, 788 of implementation, comparisons, 60, 476-480, 482, 489, 490, 684 implementation achievement levels and, 62-63 industrial co-generation, 265-266, 476, 722-723 industrial energy conservation, 60, 258, 259, 263-264, 476-477, 478, 489, 684, 718, 720, 721 722, 724, 725 landfill gas collection, 60, 409, 410, 477, 483, 489, 684, 808 methane emissions, 400, 401, 409, 410, 802-803, 804 natural gas power plants, 33-34, 355, 493, 722-723, 788, 789 790 "negative cost," 51, 180, 191-192, 487, 684 nitrous oxide emissions, 404, 467, 805, 806 nonenergy sources, 477, 479 nuclear power generation, 195 197, 354, 786-787, 788 ocean biomass stimulation, 444 445, 482 parking management, 317, 319, 759 population control, 420 reforestation, 60, 175, 440, 441, 458-459, 480, 489, 684, 814, 815, 838 solar electricity, 169, 344, 354, 372, 776, 777, 788 sunlight screening, 447, 448, 449, 452, 453-454, 459, 461n.7, 482, 486, 817-824 timing of mitigation and, 692-693, 696, 698, 703 transportation fuel efficiency, 60, 293-298, 477, 478, 489, 742743, 756 utility efficiency improvements, 182-183, 192, 213 water heating, 212, 476, 714-715 nuclear fusion, 774 water resources, 597, 598, 803 Costs and benefits, nongreenhouse buildings sector efficiency, 237-238 carbon dioxide reduction, 174, 175 chlorofluorocarbon alternatives, 392 deforestation reduction, 430 discount rates, 189, 191 energy efficiency, 183 energy supply systems, 368-369 landfill gas regulation, 411 mitigation options, 169, 473 population control, 421 reforestation, 442 transportation energy management, 320-322 Cotton production, 556, 564 D Data collection, 79-80, 81, 129, 131, 142, 226, 691 Deforestation, 11, 167, 424-429, 494495, 496 carbon dioxide effects, 8, 76, 92, 162, 424, 428, 437, 682, 812-813 defined, 843 reduction policy, 66, 76-77, 157-158, 429-430, 69O, 812 research, 430-431 species loss, 76, 430
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From page 883... ...
nations, 71 adaptation to climate change, 632, 659, 688 agricultural adaptability, 565-566 agricultural land use, 798, 799 agricultural policies, 399, 403, 803, 805 biomass technology, 799 capacity to respond to climate change, 69, 466, 626, 688 chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 389390 deforestation, 425, 429 deforestation prevention, 77, 428, 431 economic development imperative, 69, 339, 418, 429, 519 883 electrical demand and production, 236, 237 energy consumption, 65, 279-282 greenhouse gas emissions, 9, 10-11, 65, 236, 415 greenhouse gas mitigation, 6, 48, 65 66, 172, 405, 494 halocarbon phaseout, 74, 390-391 impacts of climate change on, 550, 635, 688 industrial energy consumption, 250, 279-282 investment lending to, 187 mortality rates, 616 population growth, 65, 494, 621 population growth reduction, 6, 415, 420 population migration, 628 research and development needs, 81, 702 technological assistance to, 66, 77, 390, 391, 429 urbanization, 626 Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant, 589 Diesel fuel, 305, 307, 342 Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) , 446, 829, 832 Disaster relief, 633 Discount rates, 689.
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From page 884... ...
884 transportation fuel efficiency, 299, 732, 755 valuation of future outcome, 30, 3132, 186 Diseases, 616, 618-620 Dishwashers, 219 Domestic tranquility, 505, 629-633 "Double-counting," 62, 487, 683-684 Drought adaptation remedies, 529-530 African,' 628, 631 agricultural effects, 528, 556 in climate simulations, 578 costs of, 542, 543, 550, 678 and population migration, 507, 529, 623, 628 prediction, 520 reductions in, 530 and water resources management, 40, 592, 595, 596, 598, 599 Dry ice, 829 Dust Bowl, 42, 47, 628 Dust geoengineering. See Stratospheric dust E Earth albedo, 157-158, 845 average temperature climate effects, 5, 520 equilibrium, 18, 19, 28, 519-520, 671 greenhouse effect and, 3, 91, 101, 663 greenhouse warming, projected increase, 3-4, 18, 20, 21, 27, 121, 149, 153-154, 669-671 measurement data, 117 prehistoric record, 24, 665-666 recorded increase, previous century, 4, 20-21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 117, 153, 518, 665, 669 mean temperature, 111, 121 greenhouse warming, projected increase, 145, 146-148, 521 population, 6, 7, 414, 415 radiation balance, 100-101, 664 and climatic system, 14-19, 135 cloud effects on, 828 INDEX greenhouse gas concentration and, 3, 663, 665 mitigation ofchangesin,l57-158, 195, 447, 460, 496 monitoring, 19 Earthquakes, 587, 773 EBR-II Idaho nuclear reactor, 773 Economic activity climate change effects of, 188 and deforestation, 430 efficiency improvements, 30, 474-475 and environmental valuation, 521-522 and greenhouse gas emissions, 10-11, 48, 65, 82, 495, 519 greenhouse gas reductions and, 6, 177-179, 197, 475 impacts of climate change on, 29, 31, 84, 504n, 600, 602-605, 676-677 Economic growth and adaptation to climate change, 507, 519, 626 conflict with environmental protection, 69 conflict with greenhouse gas reduction, 6, 339 deforestation and, 424-425, 429, 430 and energy consumption, 201-202 energy efficiency investment and, 238 and greenhouse gas emission, 6, 418, 496 greenhouse gas reduction and, 178 179 population control and, 416-417, 418, 496, 809 Economic modeling, 836-838 Economics, 171, 172, 183, 186 Ecosystems adaptation to climate change, 37, 39, 40, 46, 502, 504n, 505, 509, 525, 575, 577, 675, 685, 686 carbon content, 812 carbon dioxide enrichment and, 554 defined, 843 effects of mitigation on, 497 human dependency on, 84, 504n, 575 impacts of greenhouse warming on, 37, 39-40, 136-137, 152, 503, 533, 576, 676, 689 migration, 526-527 ocean upwelling changes and, 584
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From page 885... ...
INDEX policy interventions, 579 sea level change and, 586 value of, 686 Education, 227, 235, 277, 416, 417 Eemian period, 665 Electrical machinery industry, 37-38 Electricity fuel switching to, 258 storage, 365, 370, 371, 372 transmission, 350-351, 365 Electricity conservation appliances, 208, 209, 216, 218-219, 233 buildings sector, 55-56, 201-203, 204-213, 215-216, 219-220, 223, 233, 237, 240, 468-469, 476 carbon dioxide reduction, 213-214, 223-224, 239-240, 261-264, 282, 354, 487, 711, 721-722 commercial cooling, 217 conservation supply curves, 261, 263, 711-715, 718-723 cooking, 217 cost-effectiveness of, 34, 49, 51, 205, 208, 213, 354, 483 demonstration projects, 229-233 developing nations, 236-237 fuel switching, 221-222, 223 greenhouse gas reduction, 231 implementation barriers, 225-226 implementation costs, 212, 240, 476477, 484, 489, 493 incentives, 228-229, 239 industrial sector, 56, 260, 261-264, 274-275, 282, 469, 476-477, 489, 717-718, 722 investment, 225, 227-228, 234, 240, 263 lighting,, 216-217, 218, 237 policy options, 227-237, 239-240, 468-469, 470-471, 476-477, 479, 484, 496 research, 238-239 water heating, 217, 222, 223 white surfaces, 216 Electricity consumption air conditioning, 216 appliances, 215-216, 218-219 buildings sector, 201-203, 205, 206, 215-216, 219, 220, 225, 237 885 commercial cooling, 217 developing, nations, 237 industrial sector, 201, 248, 249, 250, 251, 256, 258, 260, 717-720 lighting, 216-217, 237 load management, 228 office equipment, 219 temperature extremes and, 609-610, 655 United States, 201, 202, 203, 204. 205, 356 Electricity prices biomass generating, 349 and capital recovery factors, 720, 786 carbon dioxide collection and, 353 coal-fired plants, 789, 790-791 co-generation, 264, 266 and cost of conserved energy, 711, 721 efficiency improvements and, 354, 490 and efficiency investment, 208, 209210, 213, 218, 226, 263, 282 environmental adder, 709-710 geothermal, 789 industrial, 208, 282, 709, 720, 721 integrated energy systems, 347 natural gas, 789 nuclear power, 786-787, 789, 790-791 regulation and, 226 renewable technologies, 789-790, 791 residential, 208, 209, 709 Electric power generation acid rain precursors, 238 adaptation to climate change, 41, 599, 601-602, 605-606, 654, 675 air pollutant emissions, 238 biomass burning, 57, 333, 349, 356, 361, 470, 479, 602, 787, 789 carbon dioxide collection, 58, 76, 351-353, 471 carbon dioxide emission, 256, 334, 351, 789 carbon dioxide emission reduction, 213-214, 221, 239-240, 354, 355357, 711 carbon taxes and, 368, 789-791 coal-fired, 33-34, 75, 236, 307, 334, 335, 336-338, 351, 355, 356, 470, 602, 605, 789, 790-791
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From page 886... ...
rorclng atmosphere, 13, 14-17, 100-101, 102103, 664 greenhouse gases, 3, 12-14, 17 oceans, 19, 100-101, 135, 671 Energy conservation. See also Electricity conservation; Energy supply; Industry; Transportation energy management air pollution benefits, 169, 185n, 238, 320, 321 barriers to implementation, 169, 176, 271, 472-473 carbon dioxide reduction potential, 60, 192-193, 259 chlorofluorocarbon substitutes and, 384-385, 387, 389, 392 conservation supply curves, 708, 709711, 717, 724-725 cost-effectiveness of, 49, 54, 173, 185, 683-684
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From page 887... ...
See also Electric power generation barriers to mitigation implementation, 357-367 biomass fuels, 330, 348-349 carbon dioxide collection and disposal, 351-353 carbon dioxide emission, 330-332, 334 cost-effectiveness comparison, 353 357, 683-684 fossil fuel share, 330, 332, 333, 335 greenhouse gas emission reduction, 335 integrated energy systems, 344-347 mitigation policy options, 367-368, 788 nongreenhouse benefits and costs, 368-369 nuclear share, 330, 333 recommendations, 75-76 reliability of, 717
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From page 888... ...
, 511, 628, 803, 837 INDEX Evaporation agricultural effects, 39, 44-45, 594 air temperature and, 843 carbon dioxide fertilization and, 552, 553, 555 climate change and, 40, 114, 138, 584 in climate models, 136 energy transfer, 16, 17, 136, 664 precipitation balance, 557, 592-593, 636n.7 and soil moisture, 115, 136 vegetation and, 137, 551 Evapotranspiration, 136, 137, 216 Evolution, 46, 502, 506-507, 575, 578 579, 686 Externality costs, 173-174, 272-273 709-710, 844 F Family planning services, 415 ? 416, 417, 420, 799, 810, 811 "Fee-bate" systems, 234 Feedback mechanisms, 100, 103, 154, 434, 672 cloud, 106-109, 111, 113, 669, 672, 842-843 defined, 844 negative, 845 snow-ice, 106, 108, 113 water vapor, 103-106, 109, 669 Fertility rates, 6 climate and, 615, 619 developing countries, 415 and greenhouse gas emissions, 420, 704, 705 reduction in, 416, 417, 420, 421, 703704 Fertilizers mitigation options, 394, 403-404, 471, 480, 805-806 nitrous oxide emissions, 8, 97, 162, 393, 398, 402, 682 and plant carbon dioxide use, 553 production, energy consumption, 342 soil denitrification, 96 sulfate, 457, 833 Fire retardants, 95 Fisheries, 40, 46, 584, 586, 590, 591, 599, 635
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From page 889... ...
See also Deforestation; Reforestation adaptation to climate change, 39, 40, 45, 505, 525-526, 571-575, 577, 634, 636, 677 air pollution and, 425 and biological diversity, 76, 430, 578 carbon sequestration, 40, 429, 437, 439-441, 442, 574-575, 814 in climate models, 577, 578 diseases, 40, 577 fires, 573 greenhouse gas sinks, 695, 698, 700, 702 impacts of climate change on, 567571, 599, 635 migration, 569, 575, 603, 686 recommendations, 73, 76-77 889 soil moisture and, 654 U.S. acreage, 39, 437, 567, 575 Formaldehyde, 321 Fossil fuels, 841 agricultural use, 393, 404, 801, 805 air pollutant emissions, 238 carbon content, 330, 331, 332 carbon dioxide emission, 91-92, 93, 165, 178, 179, 256, 330-332, 341, 342, 351 carbon dioxide emission reduction, 220-221, 240, 257-258, 351, 370, 442-443 carbon taxes and, 272, 791 consumption, developing nations, 65, 236 defined, 844 dependency on, 630, 635, 689 efficiency measures, 215, 220, 223, 224, 240 efficiency research and development, 239, 369, 370 electric power generation, 224, 238, 256, 334, 335, 336-339, 351, 357, 358, 791 energy supply share, 330, 333, 335, 348 fuel switching, 256-259 greenhouse gas emission, 6, 29, 332 industrial conservation policies, 274 276 in integrated energy systems, 347 manufacturing consumption, 250, 251, 253, 256, 335 replacement technologies, electric generation, 76, 77, 349, 354, 775, 791 transportation sector consumption, 286, 335 "Free riders," 495, 844 Frosts, 21-22, 34, 556, 635, 654, 655 Fuel, transportation.
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From page 890... ...
136, 137, 138 ocean simulations, 25, 115, 121 variation in results, 672 Geoengineering, 167 atmospheric chlorofluorocarbon removal, 59~ 61, 457-458, 472, 482 cloud stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 454457, 459, 460, 472, 482, 486, 824833 cost-effectiveness, 61, 460, 467, 486, 496, 691 costs of implementation, 440~41, 444-445, 447, 448, 452, 453-454, 455-456, 458, 480, 482, 817-824, 830-831, 833 evaluation of options, 59-60, 71-72, 81-82, 433~34, 436-437, 465, 467, 690 mitigation policy options, 54, 58-60, 433, 441, 466, 471-472, 481 ocean biomass stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 433, 442-446, 459, 472, 481, 482, 486 potential effects of, 434-436, 450451, 457, 459~60, 683, 691 reforestation, 58, 60, 433, 437-442, 458-459, 471, 480, 487-490 research, 59, 82, 442, 460, 481, 833 space mirrors, 54, 59, 61, 448, 461nn.7 and 9, 472, 482, 486 stratospheric bubbles (balloons) , 54, 59, 61, 452, 454, 460, 472, 482, 486, 819-824 stratospheric dust, 54, 59, 61, 82, 447, 448-454, 459~60, 461nn.8 and 10, 472, 482, 486, 817-819 stratospheric soot, 54, 59, 61, 453, 454, 472, 482, 486 Geothermal energy, 57, 342, 470 barriers to implementation, 343, 360, 372 carbon dioxide emissions, 343 costs of, 343, 356, 788, 789 energy supply share, 333, 343 Glaciers, 443, 605 sea level change and, 140, 141, 583 temperature change and, 117-118, 583 Global warming.
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From page 891... ...
See also Global warming; Greenhouse warming and climatic variations, 124 cloud feedback in, 106-107 defined, 91, 663 and earth average temperature, 3, 91, 663 radiative flux difference, 101 trace gas contributions, 846 Greenhouse gases. See also names of individual gases accumulation, 447-448 climate model projections, 26-27, 521 and precipitation variations, 129 previous century, 20-21, 27 adaptation to climate change and, 574 agricultural impacts, 577-578 animal impacts, 576 atmospheric chemical reactions, 12, 146, 158, 435 atmospheric concentrations, 12, 13, 93 anthropogenic, 3, 89, 92, 147, 153, 160 doubling of preindustrial levels, 21, 669 geoengineering changes, 59, 60 temperature impacts, 19, 22, 663, 671 atmospheric dispersal, 5, 12 891 atmospheric lifetimes, 13, 666, 672, 689 atmospheric removal processes, 145146, 157, 674 carbon dioxide-equivalent conversion, 7-9, 53, 681-683 carbon dioxide-equivalent doubling in climate models, 29, 559 projected temperature increase, 34, 18, 19, 27, 146-148, 153-154, 518, 519 radiative forcing, 102-103 emission rates, 8, 19 emission sources agriculture, 5, 393-394, 402 anthropogenic, 3, 5-6, 7-11, 89, 91, 146, 158, 159, 160, 162, 171, 667, 681, 682, 695 anthropogenic, projected, 147, 158, 162, 193, 668, 670 coal burning, 32-33, 305, 335, 336 deforestation, 424 developed nations, 65, 415, 495 developing nations, 9, 10-11, 65, 236, 415 economic growth, 6, 418, 496 energy use, 158, 330 fossil fuels, 6, 29, 332 full fuel cycle costs, 334-335 halocarbons, 376, 377-378, 393 industry, 5-6, 271-272, 279 natural, 158, 681 population growth, 6, 65, 414, 415, 419, 421, 494, 809-811 transportation fuels, 305, 731-732 transportation sector, 286 United States, 9-11, 65, 82, 158, 164, 168, 236, 394, 465-466 .
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From page 892... ...
, 27, 91, 673 climate models of, 21, 111, 121, 125, 669 previous century, 89, 663-665, 669 time lag, 19, 671, 689 infrared radiation trapping, 3, 91, 101, 306, 663, 666 international effects, 48, 495 marine impacts, 582-583 mitigation classes of policy instruments, 696706 economic impacts of, 197, 630 flow and stock, 693-694, 695-696 geoengineering, 433, 434, 436, 467, 683 policy options, 157-158, 166-167, 195, 196-197, 692 reforestation, 437 research needs, 81 strategy, 172 radiative balance effects, 3, 665 radiative forcing, 13-14, 15, 18, 19, 102, 103, 148, 158, 163, 665, 667669, 670 research needs, 71, 80, 169, 691 sinks, 672 Greenhouse warming. See also Adaptation; Climate change; Global warming; Greenhouse effect; Greenhouse gases; Mitigation climate model projections, 3-4, 19-20, 111-114, 669-671 climatic effects of, 5, 19, 504n, 680 defined, 3, 91 difficulty of determining, 19, 27, 671 feedback mechanisms, 669 global nature of, 5, 48, 83, 172, 495, 496 global temperature increase climate sensitivity and, 145, 150151, 152, 153-154 equilibrium temperature, 19, 671 projected, 3-4, 20, 21, 27, 146148, 153-154, 518 greenhouse gas contributions, 3, 27, 93, 158, 663-665, 673 anthropogenic emissions, 5-6, 91, 159 commitment to future warming, 18, 19, 149, 150, 163-164, 670 global warming potential (GWP)
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From page 893... ...
Hadley cell, 114-115 Halocarbons, 95-96. See also Chlorofluorocarbons atmospheric concentrations, 95, 381 atmospheric destruction, 433 atmospheric lifetimes, 96, 146, 381, 392-393 Clean Air Act regulation, 377, 392 costs of mitigation, 60, 479, 484, 489, 684 emission reduction options, 58, 73, 74, 383-389, 390-392, 467, 471 greenhouse warming effects, 376, 380, 381-383 industrial uses, 379, 384-386, 387 Montreal Protocol standards, 96, 150, 376, 377, 390-391 nonhalocarbon ("not-in-kind")
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From page 894... ...
, 376 emissions, 148-150 emissions reduction, 58, 382, 471, 479 global warming potential, 163, 380, 381, 383, 393 substitution for chlorofluorocarbons, 383, 385, 390, 391, 393, 792 Hydrogen in chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 380 fossil fuel content, 307, 332 fuel cell generation, 350 integrated energy system production, 347, 350 oxidation in carbon, 353 solar production, 345, 349-350, 775, 776-777 in stratospheric balloons, 819, 820, 821, 823, 824 transportation fuel, 57, 169, 305, 308, 323, 350, 470, 478 Hydrogenated chlorofluorocarbons. See Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Hydrology, 103, 135-138, 141 Hydroxyl radical (OH)
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From page 895... ...
See Developed nations Industrializing nations. See Developing nations Industrial Revolution, 3, 93, 377-378, 663 Industry, 166 adaptation to climate change, 44, 45, 504, 606-607, 677, 685 biomass fuel use, 8, 162, 259, 682 capital stock replacement, 37-38, 271, 531 chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 153 conservation supply curves, 261, 263, 267, 718-725 costs of adaptation, 545, 679, 686 electricity consumption, 201, 248, 249, 250, 251, 256, 258, 260, 717720 electricity prices, 208, 282, 709, 720, 721 895 energy consumption, 168, 248-253, 254, 258, 261, 279-282 fossil fuel use, 250, 251, 253, 256, 257-259, 336 greenhouse gas emission, 5-6, 271272, 279 macroeconomic structural changes and, 252-253, 270-271 mitigation policy options, 157, 469, 476-477, 478, 483, 484 barriers to implementation, 271272 carbon dioxide reduction potential, 60, 256, 257-258, 259, 261-262, 265-266, 270, 282 co-generation, 56, 264-266, 272, 282, 469, 476, 722-723 cost-effectiveness, 173, 258, 266, 483, 484, 718 costs of implementation, 60, 258, 259, 263-264, 476-477, 478, 489, 684, 718, 720, 721-722, 724, 725 efficiency investment, 263-264, 266-269, 271, 273, 283, 717 electric efficiency, 56, 260, 261264, 282, 469, 476-477, 718 energy efficiency improvements, 253-255, 259-269, 270, 272, 273, 282, 717 fuel efficiency, 56, 469 fuel switching, 56, 75, 221, 256259, 469, 478, 484 fuel taxes, 272-273 greenhouse gas reduction potential, 173, 248, 270, 271-272, 476477, 478, 483, 484 investment tax credits, 273-279 process technology improvements, 56, 75, 254, 269-270, 271, 279, 282, 469, 478 recycling, 269, 271, 272-273 research and development needs, 279, 280-281, 282-283 raw materials, 567 sensitivity to climate change, 41, 505, 599, 601, 602-603, 604, 654, 675 water supplies and, 41, 654 Infant mortality, 619, 631 Information programs, 197
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From page 896... ...
, 89-90, 620, 850, 853, 854 agricultural impacts findings, 560 climate model assessment, 111 climate stabilization estimate, 466 economic growth assumptions, 519 electric generation assessment, 601-602 global warming potentials, 163, 382, 808 global warming temperature assessment, 20, 121, 124, 150, 520, 521 greenhouse gas emission estimates, 15, 145, 148, 149, 150, 158 methane emission estimates, 94, 808 nitrous oxide emission estimates, 402 ocean biodiversity conclusion, 590 precipitation assessment, 128 sea level rise estimates, 142, 143 temperature records, 117, 119, 122 working groups, 66, 68, 163, 520, 601-602 International agreements, 67, 83, 182, 466 International Agricultural Research Centers, 398 International cooperation, 65, 66-67, 73, 81, 494~95, 496, 688 International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) , 66 International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP)
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From page 897... ...
, 53 54, 55, 191, 192, 216-217, 218, 233, 241-242n.10 cost of conserved energy, 212, 714 715 cost-effectiveness, 61-62, 191, 192, 683 costs of implementation, 217, 218, 476 industrial, 260, 722 policy options, SS, 468 utility programs, 231, 233 Light Water Reactors (LWR) , 769, 770 771 Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
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From page 898... ...
257, 269, 271 co-generation, 273 conservation supply curves, 261, 262, 720, 721 energy consumption, 248, 249, 250, 251, 257, 258, 717 energy efficiency, 252-253, 255, 269, 282, 718 fuel switching, 256-259 impacts of climate change on, 522 mitigation policy options, 272, 273. 274-278 process technology, 254, 269-270, 271 technology transfer, 391 Marginal benefits, 845 Marginal costs, 845 Marine ecosystems adaptation to climate change, 40, 45, 505, 590-591, 677 impacts of climate change on, 40, 46, 582-590 Markets and adaptation to climate change, 34, 509, 512, 521-522 capital, 367 defined, 845 in economic models, 837 and environmental valuation, 173, 521-522 government intervention, 399 imperfections, 172, 181, 182, 184, 195, 240, 241-242n.10, 493 incentive policies, 70, 299 Massachusetts Electric Company, 228 229 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
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From page 899... ...
. mitigation economic impacts of, 197, 630 ecosystem effects of, 497 goals of, 693-695, 700, 707 implementation of, 157, 166, 490-494, 687 barriers to, 467-473 costs of, 49, 60, 61, 171, 465, 475, 476-480, 482, 489, 683, 684 developing nations and, 6, 635, 688 government actions, 64, 197, 494, 687 incentives, 63-64, 70, 493-494, 496, 687 international efforts, 65-67, 494 495, 496, 688 regulations, 63, 196, 227, 272 subsidies, 493-494 taxation, 70, 493-494 investment in, 49, 50, 68, 78 nongreenhouse benefits, 169, 238, 369, 473 policy options, 30, 55-59, 169, 465 467, 468-472, 495, 674 agricultural emission reduction, 58, 157, 396-397, 399-401, 403 405, 471, 480, 800-806 assessment of, 33-34, 52-60, 157 buildings sector energy management, 53-54, 55-56, 227-237, 239-240, 468-469, 476, 483, 684 categories of, 467, 473-481, 496 chlorofluorocarbon destruction, 59, 61, 457-458, 472, 482 chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 70, 73, 390-391, 392, 690, 792 796 cloud stimulation, 54, 59, 61, 82, 454-455, 459, 472, 482, 486, 832 comparison of, 60, 61-63, 161, 166, 180-181, 481-490, 681 683
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From page 900... ...
chlorofluorocarbon restrictions, 74, 96, 150, 376, 377, 383, 390-391 as guide to future action, 67, 495 halocarbon restrictions, 74, 96, 150, 377, 386, 390-391 implementation and compliance, 74, 151, 377, 390-391, 393 radiative forcing effects, 15, 149, 150, 393 Mortality rates, 534, 615, 616-618, 631 N National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS)
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From page 901... ...
, 418, 809 New York (state) electricity efficiency, 206, 213, 230, 709 Energy Research and Development Authority, 206 Nitrate, 443 Nitrogen carbon dioxide enrichment and, 553, 554 fertilizer production, 342 fertilizers, nitrous oxide emission, 96, 97, 393, 402 fertilizers, use reduction, 394, 402404, 471, 480, 806 landfill gas emission, 405 soil fixing, 40, 394, 577 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
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From page 902... ...
emissions, 168 vehicle exhaust emissions, 306, 731 Nonenergy emission reduction, 167 agricultural methane, 376, 393, 394401 agricultural nitrous oxide, 376, 393, 402-404 halocarbons, 58, 376-393, 471, 479 landfill methane, 376, 405-411, 477 mitigation options, 58, 390-392, 396397, 399-401, 403-404, 410-411, 471, 479-480 research needs, 392-393, 404, 411 Nonfossil fuel sources, 305, 308, 323, 330 North America climate models, 124, 128 deforestation, 424 forest adaptation, 569, 578 sea level data, 142 Northeast Utilities, 232 Northern hemisphere cloud cover, 831 precipitation record, 128 temperature record, 20, 22, 24, 121, 122, 832 North Platte River, 597 North Sea, 140, 534, 606, 624 Northwest Power Planning Council, 229, 264 INDEX Nuclear fusion, 239, 341, 372, 767, 773 774 Nuclear power (fission) advanced technology, 75, 76, 340, 767-773 carbon restrictions and, 602, 791 cost-effectiveness, 355-356, 790, 791 costs of implementation, 195-197, 354, 786-787, 788 electricity prices, 789, 790-791 electric supply share, 330, 333, 334, 339-340 fossil-fuel plant replacement, 57, 62, 195, 371, 470, 487, 683-684 France, 11 greenhouse gas reduction, 178, 341, 479 High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors, 769, 770, 771-772 Integral Fast Reactors, 769, 770, 772 773 in integrated energy systems, 347 Light Water Reactors, 769, 770-771 public resistance to, 54, 195-197, 236, 340, 371-372, 475 reactor safety, 75, 76, 340, 372, 475, 767-771, 773 research and development, 239, 370, 372 thermal discharge, 589 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
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From page 903... ...
, 39, 332, 350, 575 Ozone (O3) Antarctic "hole," 377, 849 chlorofluorocarbon depletion, 74, 150, 376-377, 387 chlorofluorocarbon reduction and, 53, 54, 182, 376, 377, 383, 390, 392, 475, 496 as greenhouse gas, 3, 146, 158, 159, 663 greenhouse gas depletion of, 377, 380, 381, 386, 393, 533 nitrous oxide interactions, 151 particle geoengineering and, 82, 450, 451, 453, 459-460 smog and air pollution, 321, 610, 845
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From page 904... ...
, 350 Photosynthesis adaptation to climate change, 576 577 INDEX carbon dioxide fertilization and, 39, 551-554, 555, 566, 576 carbon fixing, 437, 439 defined, 845 ocean biomass, carbon dioxide absorption, 443, 589-590 Phytoplankton, 59, 443-444, 446, 472, 481, 845 Pine trees, 569, 572, 575 Plants, 21-22. See also Agriculture; Trees adaptation to climate change, 37, 46, 503, 564, 577, 581, 676, 686 biological diversity, 40, 513, 557 carbon dioxide enrichment and, 38-39, 137, 154, 551-554, 555, 576, 841 carbon dioxide uptake, 76, 154, 437, 666 climate model simulation, 558 diseases, 4O, 561, 577 impacts of climate change on, 37, 3940, 47, 506-507, 557, 584, 586, 587, 589 seasonal events index of climate change, 655 Platte River, 597, 598 Pliocene period, 665, 666 Policy options adaptation, 30, 550, 674 assessment of, 34-35 evaluation of, 43-44 recommendations, 77-79, 690 analysis, 496-497 assumptions, 21 capacities to respond, 69-70 categories of, 71-72 cost-effectiveness of, 32 costs and benefits over time, 186, 187, 473, 674, 692-706, 707 decision-making, 89, 90 economic benefits, 30 evaluation of, 29-30, 33, 35 greenhouse gas limitation, 151, 157158 investment discount rates, 189-190, 721 limitations on responses, 35 mitigation, 30, 55-59, 169, 465-467, 468-472, 495, 674 agricultural emission reduction, 58, 157, 396-397, 399-401, 403405, 471, 480, 800-806
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From page 905... ...
See Electric power generation Precipitation Antarctic, 154 carbon dioxide interaction, 137, 555 changes, adaptation to, 530, 634
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From page 906... ...
See Feedback mechanisms INDEX Radiative forcing, 100, 665 carbon dioxide, 15, 18, 148, 149, 150, 158, 163, 167-, 667, 668, 670 carbon dioxide-equivalent doubling, 102-103 carbon tetrachloride, 163 chlorocarbons, 15, 18, 149, 668, 670 chlorofluorocarbons, 15, 18, 74, 148, 149, 150, 158, 161, 163, 167, 668, 670 chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 163, 167 costs of mitigation, 173 defined, 13-14 feedback mechanisms and, 104, 107 geoengineering mitigation, 81, 450 greenhouse gas emissions, 15, 18, 19, 146, 148, 149, 150, 158, 164, 167, 668, 670, 681 human interventions, 672, 674 impacts of increases in, 152 methane, 15, 18, 148, 149, 150, 163, 167, 407, 668, 670 methyl chloride, 163 nitrous oxide, 15, 18, 148, 149, 150, 163, 167, 668, 670 research needs, 71 sources of contribution to, 158, 161 temperature increase estimation, 145 Railroads, 289, 533, 729 Raw materials, 567 Recommendations, 4 adaptation to climate change, 47, 7779, 508-514, 690 adaptation research, 77-78, 80-81, 508-509 biological diversity, 78-79, 80-81, 513 climate assessment, 508 data collection, 79-80, 691 deforestation reduction, 76-77 energy policy, 73, 74-76 geoengineering evaluation, 81-82, 691 government institutions, 511 greenhouse gas reduction, 73-77, 690 halocarbon elimination, 73, 74 international leadership, 81, 82-83, 691 investment, 512-514 markets, 511-512
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From page 907... ...
energy supply, 333-334, 341 342 wind utilization, 343, 363, 365-366 Rental buildings, 225 Reproduction, 619 Research and development adaptation to climate change, 508509, 690 agricultural, 39, 77-78, 557, 799 agricultural methane reduction, 398399, 404, 405 alternative energy sources, 75, 370371 alternative transportation fuels, 310, 322-323, 324 biological diversity, 80-81 buildings sector efficiency, 238-239 carbon dioxide enrichment, 80-81 chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, 392393 and cost of conservation, 193
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From page 908... ...
See Livestock Runoff. See Water runoff S Sacramento River, 544, 597, 679 Sahel region, 128, 625, 628 Satellite data collection, 71, 104, 105, 106, 125, 531, 669 Scrubbers, sulfur dioxide, 336, 338, 347 Sea level adaptation policy options, 537, 590591, 611-613, 635 INDEX agricultural impacts, 602 coastal habitat impacts, 584, 585, 586, 587, 590-591 coastal settlement adaptation, 506, 590-591, 611-613, 614, 685-686 coastal settlement impacts, 602, 609, 610, 626-627 costs of adaptation options, 43, 188, 506, 535, 606, 611-612, 614 data record, 25, 140- 142, 583 glacial melting rise, 25, 141, 583, 680 groundwater effects, 609, 610, 613 impacts of climate change on, 25-26, 141, 550, 583, 672 index of climate change, 43, 118, 503, 653, 655 industrial impacts, 606, 607 mitigation options and, 497 population migration effects, 627, 628, 630 potential rise from global warming, 26, 28, 142-143, 154, 519, 583, 680 relative, 25, 140 shoreline impacts, 585-586, 609, 611 thermal expansion rise, 25-26, 141, 142, 143, 583 wetlands impacts, 40, 585, 591 Seasonal events, 653, 655 Seed banks, 579-580 Shoreline, 591, 635 ecosystems, 584, 586-587, 589 erosion, 585-586, 609, 611 Short Rotation Woody Crops Program, 779-784 Silicon cells, 775-776 Silver iodide (AgI)
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From page 909... ...
, 220, 342, 343 Solar photovoltaics barriers to implementation, 169, 363 carbon dioxide reduction potential, 344, 479 cost-effectiveness, 356, 790, 791 cost of electricity, 169, 344, 354, 372, 776, 777, 788 energy storage, 344, 372 energy supply potential, 57, 169, 372, 470, 775-776 hydrogen generation, 349-350, 775, 776. 777 research and development needs, 370, 371 technology improvements, 343-344 Solar radiation agricultural effects, 556 albedo reflection, 840, 845 909 atmospheric absorption and reflection, 14-17, 91, 100, 101, 664-665 cloud absorption and reflection, 101, 107, 669, 826, 843 cloud albedo, 108, 450, 455, 824, 827, 828, 842 earth absorption, 16, 100-101, 106, 664 as energy source, 775, 776 geoengineered blocking, 30, 82, 157, 433, 447-457, 459, 472, 674 geoengineering, costs of, 447, 448, 449, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 482, 486 greenhouse gas absorption, 3, 12-14, 17 urban absorption, 216 variations in, 665, 672 water vapor absorption, 104 white surfaces reflection, 216, 241n.5, 447 winter reduction, 241n.5 Solid waste, 160-161 Solvents, 95, 386, 387, 792, 793, 794 Sorghum, 560-561, 563, 564 Southeastern U.S., 559, 560, 601, 779 Southern California Edison Company, 222, 337, 339, 776 Southern corn leaf blight, 557 Southern hemisphere, 22, 121, 125, 128 South Platte River, 598 Southwestern U.S., 350, 654, 776, 777 Soviet Union capital stock turnover, 531, 532 coal reserves, 65, 332, 336 industrial energy consumption, 250 land surface temperatures, 120, 124, 126 nuclear reactor technology, 769 oil reserves, 604-605 population growth, 415 precipitation measurements, 128, 130 Soybean production, 559, 560-561, 564 Space dust, 448.
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From page 910... ...
acid rain production, 238, 336, 457, 832 Clean Air Act allowances, 272, 369 cloud condensation nuclei, 454, 455, 456, 457, 825, 830-832, 833 emission standards, 368 energy efficiency emission reduction, 203, 231, 238 fuel switching reduction, 349 geoengineering dust, 435, 449 power plant emission reduction, 336, 338, 349, 351 smokestack scrubbers, 336, 338, 347 Sulfuric acid (lI2SO4) cloud condensation nuclei, 450-451, 455 geoengineering dust, 449, 829, 830, 833 Summer adaptation to climate, 615 crop yields, 559-560 electrical demand.
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From page 911... ...
303, 315, 324 gasoline "guzzler/sipper," 303-304 greenhouse-gas emission, 367, 368 industrial fossil fuel use, 272 methane-emitting agriculture, 401, 800, 802, 804 mitigation policy options, 70, 493-494 nitrogen fertilizer, 403-404, 805-806 revenue-neutral efficiency incentives, 234, 240 rice production, 802, 803 ruminant livestock, 401, 804 Technological costing, 49-50, 63, 180 181, 183, 185-186, 194, 195, 302, 490-493 Technology adaptation to climate change, 37-38, 509, 514, 516, 530-534 agricultural, 394, 405, 509, 799 aircraft efficiency, 293, 743 air pollutant reduction, regulations and, 70 alternative energy, 75, 76 "backstop" technology, 51, 52, 180, 192 barriers to implementation, 367 capital stock replacement, 37-38, 533, 606-607 carbon dioxide emission reduction, 269, 270 carbon dioxide removal, 178 coal-fired power generation, 336-337 cost-effectiveness, 295, 298, 299-300, 732, 737, 738, 755 costs of implementation, 183, 354 911 defined, 846 deforestation prevention, 77 and economic growth,-188 efficiency investment, 240, 299 electric efficiency, buildings sector, 205, 219, 225, 238-239, 240 electric power generation, cost:effectiveness, 786-791 electric vehicles, 323-324 energy efficiency, industrial processes, 254, 269-270, 271, 279, 280-281, 722 geoengineering, 458, 460 greenhouse gas mitigation, 66, 73, 270, 466, 702, 837 halocarbon substitutes, 392 and health improvements, 41, 44, 505 human-env~ronment buffer, 84 integrated energy systems, 344, 347 investment, capital recovery, 708 "maximum" technology, 295, 325n.2, 755 nuclear reactor, 75, 76, 195-197, 340, 767-773 policy incentives, 75, 76, 271, 368 renewable energy sources, 367 research and development needs, 238239, 279, 280-281, 392, 405 solar hydrogen production, 777 transportation fuel efficiency, 286, 291-293, 295, 298, 299-300, 727, 730, 732-742, 744-749, 751, 752753, 754-755 Technology transfer, 390, 391-392, 429 Telecommunications industry, 37-38 Temperature atmosphere cloud feedback, 842-843 data records, 125 greenhouse warming, 4, 673 ocean heat transfer, 143 radiant energy transfer, 16, 17, 19, 664 and shoreline ecosystems, 587 and water vapor concentration, 103-104, 158 in climate models, 138 cloud interactions, 672 of clouds, 827 data collection, 129, 131
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From page 912... ...
, projected increase, 3-4, 18, 20, 21, 27, 121, 149, 153-154, 669 671 prehistoric records, 24, 665-666 recorded increase, previous century, 4, 20-21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 117, 153, 518, 665, 669 global mean, 111, 121 greenhouse warming, projected increase, 145, 146-148, 521 greenhouse gas reduction and, 164 greenhouse warming increase adaptation to, 47, 503, 613-614, 653, 655 and air pollution, 610, 614 climate model projections, 3-4, 19-20, 21, 111-114, 124, 518, 669-671 climate sensitivity range, 145, 150 151, 152, 153-154 climatic effects, 26 and electrical demand, 609-610, 655 geoengineering and, 433, 436 and sea level rise, 118 land surface measurements, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122 ocean atmospheric interaction, 636n.5 in climate models, 115 climatic effects, 17 and cloud cover, 108 greenhouse warming effects on, 583-584 heat transfer in, 26, 28, 154 marine organism impacts, 588-590, 591 surface measurements, 117, 118, 119-120, 121, 122 thermal expansion, 25-26, 140 141, 142, 583 typhoon and hurricane formation, 673 ocean current disruption and, 680 in radiative feedback mechanisms, 103 radiative forcing, 102 .
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From page 913... ...
, 57, 317-319, 320, 324, 470 vehicle miles traveled, 310, 311, 312 Transportation equipment industry, 249 Trans-Tasman Agreement, 628 Trees. See also Forests; Wood adaptation to climate change, 37, 39, 46, 506, 525-526, 569-570, 636 biomass fuel, 348, 349, 779-783 burning, carbon dioxide emission, 11 carbon dioxide enrichment and growth of, 555, 569 carbon dioxide uptake, 5, 40, 77 carbon storage, 77, 437, 439-441, 537, 574-575, 814, 815 diseases, 40, 570 evapotranspiration cooling, 216
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From page 914... ...
, 621 INDEX Environment Programme, 66, 429, 511 Food and Agriculture Organization, 425, 427 High Commissioner for Refugees, 621 Population Fund, 415, 420-421 World Conference on Environment and Development (1992) , 67, 83 United States adaptation costs, 542-546, 550, 678 679 adaptation policy options, 44, 69-70, 77-79, 574 adaptive capability, 38, 47, 71, 507, 511-512, 530, 541, 676, 685 agricultural adaptability, 39, 534 agricultural crop varieties, 38, 531, 557 agricultural crop yields, 553, 556, 559 agricultural land use, 799 agricultural methane emission, 394, 395, 799-800 agricultural methane reduction, 401, 800, 801-804 agricultural nitrous oxide emission, 402 agricultural nitrous oxide reduction, 404, 806 agricultural production policies, 399, 801-802 air pollutant emissions, 238, 321 air pollution reductions, 70 alternative transportation fuels, 304, 309 appliance efficiency standards, 209n, 219, 233 automobile dependency, 173, 314, 315, 316, 318, 319, 759 automobile subsidization, 314 biomass fuel use, 348, 779 buildings sector, energy conservation, 204, 207, 220, 221-222, 236, 239 240 buildings sector, energy consumption, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206 carbon dioxide emission, 9-11, 158 160, 164, 165, 168, 688 carbon dioxide emission reduction, 177, 221, 223-224, 239-240, 356 357
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From page 915... ...
INDEX 915 chlorofluorocarbon consumption, 376, 385, 386 chlorofluorocarbon emission limits, 70, 74, 182, 377, 385, 496 chlorofluorocarbon phaseout, costs of, 387, 388, 389, 792-797 chlorofluorocarbon taxes, 383-384, 390 climate range, 38, 39 cloud cover, 832 coal-burning technology, 336-337 coal reserves, 332, 336 deforestation, 76 deforestation prevention, 428, 429, 431 drought of 1988, 542, 556, 678 economic consumption, 177-178 economic impacts of climate chance, 604, 676 electrical generating capacity, 236 237, 709 electrical generation sources, 334, 336, 789-790, 791 electricity consumption, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 356 electricity demand, 203, 601-602, 610 electricity prices 213, 709 electric power plant lifespan, 605-606 energy policy, 74-76 energy security, 368-369 energy supply sources, 75-76, 333 334, 335 environmental laws, 631, 632 forest and grassland cover, 39, 76, 437, 567, 568, 575 forest management, 429-430, 572 fossil fuel consumption, 335 greenhouse gas emission, 9-11, 65, 82, 158, 164, 168, 394, 465-466 greenhouse gas emission reduction, 64, 74, 167, 493, 496, 684 gross national product, 678 highway expenditures, 312-313 human health, 41, 618-619, 620 hydroelectric power generation, 342 income, impact of climate change on, 560, 601 industrial adaptability, 41, 44 industrial energy conservation, 261, 271, 282, 717-718 industrial energy consumption, 248, 250-252, 253 infant mortality, 619 international cooperation, 48, 65, 67, 73, 82-83, 494, 495, 496, 691 investment rate of return, 186-187, 189, 689 irrigated acreage, 562 landfill methane emission, 405, 406 landfill methane reduction, 408, 411 mass transit systems, 314 methane emissions, 166, 168, 394, 395, 405, 406, 408, 799-800 mitigation, cost-effectiveness of, 467, 483-486, 488 mitigation implementation costs, 60, 172-173, 476-480, 482, 489, 493, 684 mitigation option evaluation, 473-490 mitigation policy options, S5-S9, 69 70. 73-77, 465-472 mitigation strategy, 48, 197, 494, 497 nuclear power supply, 339-340, 787 nuclear reactor technology, 768, 771 oil imports, 320-321 oil reserves, 604-605 paper industry technology, 606-607 paved surface area, 314 policy recommendations, 4, 71-72, 73-83, 511 political stability, 629, 631 population control programs, 82, 420 421, 691 population migration, 42, 620, 622 623, 626, 627, 628, 654 precipitation measurements, 128, 129 131 reforestation, 77, 433, 437-439, 440, 814, 815 research needs, 81, 509 research funding, 71, 239, 324 rice production, 400, 799-800, 801 802 ruminant livestock production, 799, 803, 804 shoreline erosion, 585 solar photovoltaic potential, 775 sulfur dioxide emissions, 831 temperature measurements, 120, 124 125, 126
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From page 916... ...
agricultural yield study, 559 and chlorofluorocarbon phaseout, 387, 389 Clean Coal Technology Program, 336337 electric demand projections, 203 electric efficiency estimates, 206 energy efficiency data collection, 226 energy efficiency research, 239 energy supply assessments, 357, 601 industrial adaptability assessment, 606 industrial energy efficiency estimates, 252, 253, 254, 257, 264, 266 mitigation policy options, 169, 606 nuclear reactor technology program, 771 Residential Conservation Survey, 222 transportation fuel economy estimates, 293, 300, 737, 738, 739, 742 United States Forest Service, 442, 511, 568 Uranium, 340, 341 Urban heat islands, 55, 216, 241n.5, 844 INDEX Urbanization, 120, 416, 626 Utilities. See Electric utility companies V Variable-speed motors, 191, 192, 260261, 722 Vegetation.
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From page 917... ...
146, 150 Weather agricultural sensitivity to, 556, 558 data records, 504, 636 effects of climate change on, 26, 673 ocean circulation and, 26, 584, 591, Winter 676 variability, 513, 515, 537 917 Weather forecasting, 129 and adaptation to climate change, 80, 510, 534, 691 government provision of, 538 satellites, 531 West Antarctic Ice Sheet, 25, 26, 141, 636n.4, 680 Western Massachusetts Electric Company, 232 Western U.S. fuel taxes and, 303 irrigated area, 564-565, 594 ocean currents and weather, 676 water supplies, 563, 596 West Germany capital stock turnover, 531 -532 fuel prices, 295, 754, 755 nuclear reactor technology, 768, 771, 772 Wetlands adaptation to climate change, 40, 636n.6 costs of adaptation, 575-576 impacts of climate change on, 584 585, 591 methane emission, 94, 95, 158 Wheat production adaptation to climate change, 562, 564 carbon dioxide fertilization and, 551, 552, 553 impacts of climate change on, 559, 560-561, 562, 563 White surfaces cost of conserved electricity, 210-211, 212, 476, 714-715 electricity use reduction, 55, 216, 241n.5, 447, 468 climate change and, 556, 584 Wind energy barriers to implementation, 363, 365 366, 367 cost-effectiveness, 356 cost of implementation, 479, 788, 790 energy supply potential, 58, 343, 372, 471 research and development needs, 371 antarctic stratosphere, chemical reactions, 450
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From page 918... ...
, 66, 511 World Climate Research Program (WCRP) , 66 World Development Report (World Bank)
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