Drinking Water and Health, Volume 1 (1977) / Chapter Skim
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APPENDIX C: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
APPENDIX C: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Pages 917-940
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From page 917... ...
The Study was conducted by the Safe Drinking Water Committee of the National Research Council. A thorough study of the scientific literature was undertaken in order to assess the implications for human health of the constituents of drinking water in the United States.
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From page 918... ...
Health eRects associated with 22 inorganic solutes were reviewed. Most were judged to present little or no threat to human health, either because of low concentration in drinking water, minimal potential toxicity, or both.
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From page 919... ...
It is the level at which exposure to a single chemical is not anticipated to produce an observable toxic response in man. The ADI does not represent a safe level in drinking water because it does not specify what fraction of the potential contaminant intake may come from water.
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From page 921... ...
, 15-16, 492, 701 factors in calculating, 15 toxicological evaluation standard, 15 adenoviruses, 3, 88, 90, 96, 108 adrenal glands degeneration, 724 necrosis, 724 adsorption and pathogenic transport, 13 catalysis, on clays, 141 adverse dose response, defined, 802 921 aerosols, 140 air pollution, 373 interaction with cigarette smoking, 50 Alachlor, 525, 527-530 dose effects, 527-528, 796 toxicity data, 529 alcohol, ethyl (see acetaldehyde) interactive effects, 50 aldehydes, 553 aldicarb, 635, 637-643 carcinogenicity, 641 effects in animals, 639-640 effects in man, 638-639 toxicity data, 643 Aldrin (see cyclodienes)
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From page 922... ...
anticholinesterase effects, 605 Aphelenchus species, 116 argyria, 290-291 arrhythmia, 782 arsenic, 28, 54, 212, 316-344, 428-430 absorption, 319 beneficial effects, 340-341 biotransformations, 320 carcinogenicity, 326-331, 336, 339, 429 430 chemical interactions, 340 mutagenicity, 331-333, 339, 429 teratogenicity, 339-340, 429 toxicity, 320-326, 333-336, 429 arsenic compounds arsenates, 319-320 arsenic trioxide, 319, 328 arsenites, 319-321 arsines, 321 arsonium, 321 asbestiform, 144 asbestos, 13, 144-168 analysis, 155-159 concentrations in water and air, 152- 153, 189 dust and cancer deaths, 160-163 emission factors, 153 health effects including cancer, 160-168, 189-191 occurrence, 151-155, 189 redistribution, 152- 155 solubility, 150- 151 UICC reference samples, 147, 150, 151 asbestos fibers, experimental studies, 163-168 sampling and analysis, 155- 159 asbestosis, 160 asbestos minerals, 135 mineralogy, 145-150 Ascaris lumbricoides, 1 15 atherosclerosis, 244 atomic-absorption analytical method, 226, 227, 235 Atrazine (see triazines) attapulgite, 137 Aureobasidium pullulans, 177 azinphosmethyl, 604-608 carcinogenicity, 606 effects, 605-606 toxicity data, 608 Bacillus species, 67, 85 back-flushing, 117 bacteria, 13, 63-64, 66-88, 119-120, 179181, 186 coliform count, 75-76, 119 controlling in water supplies, 119- 120 correlations with viruses, 110- 111 disease potential estimation, 69-70 dose required for infection, 67-69 enteric, 67-68 gastrointestinal tract, 33 nitrate-reducing, 417
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From page 923... ...
ether, 710-712 carcinogenic risk estimates, 712, 794 toxicity data, 714 bis(2-chloroisopropyl ether, 799 blackfoot disease, 325 Bloom's syndrome and cancer incidence, 43 bone cancer and radium, 17, 894-896, 898 disease, 282 brain disorders, 784 breast cancer, 50-51 Bromacil, 537, 540-543 ADI, 541-542, 796 dose levels, 540-541, 543, 796 toxicity, 543 bromamine, 109 bromination, water, 109 bromine, 119, 171 bromobenzene, 693, 694-695, 793 bromochlorobenzenes, 799 bromodichloromethane, 799 bromoform, 695-697 bronchi, constriction of, 782 bronchitis, 238 brucite-gibbsite materials, 139 burns, chemical, 699 Butachlor, 525, 527-530 dose effects, 527-528, 796 toxicity data, 529 I-butanol (see butylalcohol, tert-) tert-Butyl alcohol, 697-698 Cadmium, 207-208, 211-213, 218, 220-221, 236-241, 302-303, 305-306 health effects, adverse, 238-239 Itai-Itai disease, 237-239 poisoning, 237-239 Calcium hypochlorite, 4 cancer, 20, 160 (see also carcinogenesis, .
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From page 924... ...
. carclnogen~clty and chemical structure, 791 animal related to human, 53 correlation with mutagenicity, 20, 22, 37-38 carcinogens, 15, 19, 54 additive effects, 49-50 asbestos, 13 chemical in drinking water, 793 definition, 80~802 direct-acting, dose-response relation ship, 39 exposure and cancer development, 21, 30 fibers, 166 167 ingested, 15 listing of, 794 nitrosamines, 416, 438 oral administration of test, 48-49 "positive" controls, 56 carcinoma, bronchogenic, 160 cardiac sensitization, 781 catalysis by clays, of organic species, 140- 143 catalytic alterations, 141 - 142 cation exchange capacity (CEC)
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From page 925... ...
chloroethyl methyl ether, 799 chloroform, 21, 185, 713, 715-718 carcinogenicity, 715-716 carcinogenic risk estimates, 716, 794 product of chlorination water treatment, 21, 179 toxicity data, 718 chlorohydroxybenzophenone, 799 chloromethane (see methyl chloride) chloromethyl ethyl ether, 799 chlorophenoxys, 493-519 (see also 2,4-D; 2,4,5-T; TCDD; 2,4,S-TP; MCPA)
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From page 926... ...
, 178, 568, 574-580 and diet, 575 carcinogenicity, 577-578 carcinogenic risk estimates, 578-579, 794 dose effects, 576-577 in milk, 575 toxicity data, 580 DDT-T (see DDT) debris, organic, 177 deficiency interactions of chemical agents, 51-52 DEHP, di(2-ethylhexyl)
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From page 927... ...
, 19, 27, 51, 88, 37, 38 and 2,4-D, 497 xeroderma pigmentosum and ultraviolet-induced skin cancer, 43, 51 dose rates and mutations, 877-889, 894 evaluation of high animal, extrapolated to low human, 15, 55-56 dose-response adverse, defined, 802-804 curves, 24, 26, 37-39, 51 models, 47-48, 51, 59, 879-896 relationship, 15, 35, 37-49, 51, 58, 802, 872, 886 dose animal related to human, 31 annual, estimated from natural radiation in U.S., 858 critical, 23 duration, 36-37 effective, 41 estimation for heterogeneous popula tions, 25 exponential model of retention of radionuclides, 866 high, of carcinogens, extrapolation to low, 47-49 high, relevant to human carcinogenesis studies, 55 interactive effects, 49-52 low, effects of chronic exposure, 21 maximum tolerated, 54, 56-57 "no effect," 24, 43 "no-observed-adverse-effect," 15, 24, 25, 28, 54, 490 power function model of retention of radionuclides, 866 "safe," 24, 27, 53, 54, 56-57 selecting for experiment, 34-35 threshold, 15, 25 dosimetric models, 866 Dracunculusmedinesis, 115 drinking water (see also chemical agents, contaminants, water systems, water treatment) effects of pollutants, 20 European standards, 78-79 evaluating epidemiological information from health authorities, 12- 13 inorganic solutes, 14 microbiology of, 63-134 organic solutes, criteria for selection, 14-16 origin of constituents, 11 per capita consumption daily, 11 radionuclide content, 859-862 selecting for study, 10 standards, purpose of, 22 U.S.
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From page 928... ...
ethylmercuric chloride, 275 etiology, disease, 64-66, 120 ETU (ethylenethiourea, see dithiocarba mates) European Standards, for drinking water, 78-79 excretion rates, differences between species, 33-34, 53 exponential model, of radionuclide reten tion, 866 exposure, 24, 27, 28 chronic, 21, 22, 52 dose rate and effects, 53-57 effects, 29 free recovery periods, 24 occupational, 160 plateau period, 899 procedures, 35-37, 47~9 false-negative results, 27, 54, 74 false-positive results, 27, 54, 74 fecal coliform test, 76 fecal pollution, 69, 72 feeding studies, experimental on animals, 19 fenuron, 172 Ferbam (see dithiocarbamates)
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From page 929... ...
adverse, 9, 10, 13, 16 and need for drinking water standards, 22-26 animal extrapolated to man, 29-37 biological on humans, 20 chronic, 22 no-observed-adverse, 11, 15 predicting adverse, 23 reversible, 23, 24, 26, 28, 53 types of, 20 heart failure, congestive, 323 hectorite, 137 helminths, 112, 115-118, 121 heme synthesis, 258 hepatic excretion rates, differences be tween species, 33 hepatitis A (infectious hepatitis) , 8, 88, 90-96, 101, 120 epidemiology, 91-94 from contaminated shellfish, 92 hepatitis amebic, 112 hepatotoxicity, 715 Heptachlor, 556-568
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From page 930... ...
, 857, 865 868, 874, 878, 887, 889 International Standards for drinking water, 78-79 in vitro tests, 22, 88-89 iodination, water, 109 iodine, 109, 119, 863 I-125, 864 I-129, 865 I- 131, 862-865 ion exchange, trace metal removal, 225 226 iron, 207, 210-212, 218 irreversible health effects, 23-26, 52 assessing, 53-58 congenital malformations, 25 self-propagating, 26 irreversible toxicity, 27, 52 isodecane, 799 Itai-Itai disease, 237-239 kaolinite, 137, 142, 185 kaopectate, 137 Katadyn process, 289 Kepone, 592, 596-599 carcinogenicity, 596-597 carcinogenicity risk estimates, 597-598, 794 effects in man, 595-596
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From page 931... ...
mesothelioma, 160 metabolism alkaline earth, 870 animal rates, 31 differences between species, 33, 53 factor in dose-response models, 46 glucose, 242 of chemical agents, 29, 33 metachloronitrobenzene, 799 metallic cations, interactions with clays, 138-139, 142 metal oxides, in soil, 169 metals allowable concentrations of, 14 essential, 302 metals, trace, in water systems, 170-171,
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From page 932... ...
microbiology of water, 63-134, 179-183 bacteria, 67-88, 119- 120 epidemiology, 63-66, 91-94, 112, 118-119 helminths, 115-117 protozoa, 112-115 viruses, 88- 111, 120 water treatment practices and parasite removal, 117-118, 120-121 Micrococcus species, 85 microorganism-particle interaction in water, 179-183 microorganisms in water, action of, 179 183 bacteria, 180- 181 disinfection, difficulty of, 179-180, 182 hydroxide gel coated, 186 microbial aggregates, 179 viral aggregates, 179-180 viruses, 181- 183 microscopy (see electron microscopy, optical microscopy) milk of nursing mothers, 575, 758 Mills-Reincke theorem, 7, 8 Minamata disease, 276 mineral fibers (see also asbestos)
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From page 933... ...
175 one-hit dose response model of carcinogenesis, 39-40, 45 optical microscopy, asbestos fibers, 156 organic debris, effects on water, 177 organic particles in soil, 135 organic particles in water, 135, 168-179 health effects, 19~191 in municipal and industrial wastes, 174176 in soil, 169-174 removal, 185 organic pollutants and clays, 140-143, 169 organoleptic test, 802 organophosphates, 604-635 (see also azinphosmethyl, diazinon, disulfoton, malathion, methyl parathion, parathion, phorate) Orthocide (see Captan)
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From page 934... ...
air, 373 assessing in drinking water, 19 carcinogenic, nonthreshold approach, 21 effects, 20 fecal, 69, 72 methods of study, 19 oil, 175 predicting effects, 35-37 polonium-210, 858 polyelectrolytes, 106 polyelectrolytes, organic in soils, ion exchange capacity, 171 in water, 177- 179 water treatment, 186 Polyram, 655 porphyria, 502 potassium-40, 858, 859, 871, 896 potassium fixation, 139 power function model, of radionuclide retention, 866 procarcinogens, 421 Propachlor, 525, 527-530 dose effects, 527, 528, 796 toxicity data, 529 Propanil, 528, 532-534 Propazine (see triazines) propylbenzene, 761, 763 Proteus mirabilis, 422 protozoa, 13, 63 parasitic, 121 pathogenic, 112-115, 117-118 removal, 117, 120-121
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From page 935... ...
Index 935 Proteus species, 67, 85 Pseudomonas species, 75, 85, 86 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 67 Public Health Service, U.S., 76, 78 pulmonary diseases, 160 sarcoidosis, 234 Rad, definition, 899 radiation, ionizing, 16, 38, 359, 857-858 adverse health effects, 16-17, 872, 874, 884, 892-898 background, 857-858, 892 carcinogenesis (see somatic effects) carcinogenetic thresholds, 38-39 developmental and teratogenic effects and risks, 872-874, 897 dose estimates, 865-872 dose effectiveness factors, 887-892 genetic effects and risks, 874-884, 894, 897 high LET, 38, 858, 859-861 low LET, 39, 858-859, 873, 878, 886-887 mutagenesis, 37, 877-884 somatic effects and risks, 16, 884-892, 894-896, 897-898 radioactive contaminants in water, 16- 17, 857-903 health effects, 896-898 radioactive CO2 test, 75 radioactive fall-out, 862 radionuclides in water, 16- 17,858-865,870 872 artificial, 862-865 cancer incidence, 16, 894-896, 898 dose factors, annual, 867, 871 hypothetical activity, 870-871 natural, 859-861 radionuclides, retention models exponential, 866 power function, 866 radiopharmaceuticals, 862-865 radium and bone cancer, 17, 894-896, 898 Ra-223, 861 Ra-224, 861 Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, v, 9, 905 Ra-226, 858, 860-861, 866, 869-871, 896, safety, 12, 27, 56 898 definition, 801 Ra-228, 858, 860-861, 896, 898 evaluation of, 801 radon inhalation and cancer, 50 Rn-220, 858 Rn-222, 858, 861 Raynaud's syndrome, 324, 325 receptor sites, differences between species, 34 red-cell cholinesterase, 630 protoporphyrin, 258 rem, defined, 899 renal function, impaired, 379, 380 insufficiency, 704 stones, 238 reoviruses, 88, 90, 96, 100, 108 reverse osmosis water treatment, 97, 225 reversible health effects, 23, 24, 26, 28, 53 Rhabditis species, 116 riebeckite, 144 risk absolute, 899 acceptable, 24 nonthreshold approach, 21 relative, 54, 879, 899 risk assessment factors limiting, 19 procedures, 12, 15, 19-62, 792 risk-benefit, 56-57 comparisons, 21, 57 methods of determining, 12 risk estimate, evaluation, 15, 27-29, 48-49 risk estimating, 19-20, 39, 55-56, 490-491, 890-891 background radiation and, 879, 885, 892-894 genetic effects and, 872-889, 894, 897 radioactive drinking water, 892-894 specific cancers, radiation induced, 889-892 RNA (ribonucleic acid)
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From page 936... ...
skin diseases, 326 pigmentation, 50 slime deposits in water, 86 smectite, 137, 139, 142 sodium, 212, 400-411, 435-436 analytical methods for, 409 daily intake, 401-402, 435-436 epidemiology, 406-409 hypertension and, 403-409, 411 softening, water, 183-184 (see also hardness) soil particles in water, 169-174 solutes, inorganic, 205-488 defined, 14 solutes, organic, 849-857 defined, 14-16 somatic cell mutations, 884-892, 894-896 somatic effects, 16, 884-889, 894-895, 897-898 self-propagating effect, 26 SPC (standard plate count)
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From page 937... ...
, 509-519 carcinogenicity, 515 dose levels, 513-515, 796 mutagenicity, 515 teratogenicity, 515-516 toxicity, 513-515, 516-517, 519 trace elements, concentrations, 218, 220 trace metals in drinking water (see metals, trace) Treflan (see dinitroanilines)
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From page 938... ...
variable-threshold model of carcinogenesis, 45, 46 vermiculite, 139, 142 Vibrio cholerae, 2, 67-68, 70, 73 vinyl chloride, 783-787 carcinogenic risk estimates, 785-786, 794 effects in animals, 784-785 effects in man, 784 vinyl bichloride (see trichloroethane) viruses, 13, 63, 88- 111, 120, 179, 181- 183, 186 correlations with bacteria, 110- 111 detecting waterborne, 94-95 epidemiology, 91-94 health effects in drinking water, 101-104 history of enteric, 89-91 recovery from water, 94- 101 resistance to disinfection, 104-110 water treatment to remove, 104-111 viruses, enteric (see enteroviruses)
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From page 939... ...
Index 939 whipworms, 11 3- 1 1 6 ~lson's gases, 252-253 Todd Head Own, 78 xeroderma pigmentosum, 4] , j 1 x-ray dieact1On, asbestos analysis, 139 xylenes, 787, 788-789 xylenc1 isomers, 7]
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