Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems Science, Technology, and Public Policy (1992) / Chapter Skim
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5 Rivers and Streams
5 Rivers and Streams
Pages 165-261
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From page 165... ...
5 Rivers and Streams Human activity has profoundly affected rivers and streams in all parts of the world, to such an extent that it is now extremely difficult to find any stream which has not been in some way altered, and probably quite impossible to find any such river. The effects range from pollution to changes in the pattern offlow, and they have become increasingly marked during the east two or three centuries.
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From page 166... ...
deterioration of water quality, (6) decline of native species, and (7)
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From page 167... ...
~ during the 68-year period Available records at the Congress~Street gauging station~,:72 percent~of~al~l annual flood peaks occurred during the months of Jui;y and August 19 percent Adjuring September and ~October, and 9 pe~rcent~Novembert;hroug~h Febru:a~ry.~ No annual ~peak~fl;ows;have been;~recorded during the; months of March, Apri;l, ~ May, or Jounce; (B~etancourt and: Turner, 1988~. IN this century, the greatest geom~orphological changes fin the Santa Cruz River were caused by floods occurring in 1905, 1915, 1977, and 1983 (the greatest recorded event, which had a peak discharge of approximately ;1,~5~00 m3Js at t~he:C;ongress Street gaug~e3J and all Reassociated with El Nino conditions (warmer than average episodes in the tropical Pacific)
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From page 168... ...
This problem- is not specific to the Santa Cruz floodplain but to many other communities in the arid and semiarid Southwest as well. Prior to the beginning of the twentieth century the 80-km reach of the Santa Cruz River throughout the; Tucson Basin was characterized by lengthy segments of unincised alluvium interrupted by short and discontinuous gullies.
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From page 169... ...
from point sources. In many parts of the United States, water quality has been maintained or restored since the institution of the clean water acts, starting around 1965, although problems remain in some reaches (CEQ, 1989; ORSANCO, 1990~.
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From page 170... ...
The Willamette River restoration has been directed primarily toward water quality restoration, protection of beneficial uses of the river water, and management of certain species of game fish. The restoration also includes reservoir management and research intended to reduce ecological disturbances in the river occasioned by changes in water temperature caused by the release of water from reservoirs.
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From page 171... ...
There is no comparable nexus of programs to deal with restoration of streams, rivers, riparian zones, and floodplains affected by intensification of land use, yet agriculture and urban development are prominent factors in the deterioration of stream habitats, according to a national fisheries habitat survey conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser~rice (Judy et al., 1984; Guldin, 1989~.
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From page 172... ...
or the riparian zone can be restored so that upstream disturbances do not undo downstream recovery. In the Mattole River (see case study, Appendix A)
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From page 173... ...
, a small group of citizens formed the Merrimack River Watershed Council, which, like the Mattole River Council, mobilized public support and attracted attention and help from a variety of government agencies. Restoration of the Merrimack River has resulted in water quality improvement to the point that benthic organisms have recolonized formerly barren areas, natural resource agencies are working on the reestablishment of anadromous fish, and cities are using the river as a source of drinking water.
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From page 174... ...
Downed logs and root wads provide habitat structure: for fish and solid substrate for the invertebrates. ~ The Palmiter method has been applied primarily in lowgradient alluvial streams and small rivers where logjams cause sediment deposition and increased flooding upstream and bank erosion where the stream cuts a new channel around the jam.
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From page 175... ...
There is a need for comprehensive, integrated programs that support stream and river restoration at all levels inherent in the drainage hierarchy, from local reaches and tributaries to interstate waterways. Immediate attention should be given to the remnants of large riverfloodplain systems that still exist, because there are so few (e.g., there is only one twelfth-order river in the conterminous United States, the Mississippi River)
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From page 176... ...
Today, dikes in lowland agricultural areas of developed countries typically are used to keep floodwaters out of fields, and chemical fertilizers are applied to maintain the productivity of the soil. Following their analysis of the Mississippi River from an energy systems point of view, Odum et al.
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From page 177... ...
Aquatic fauna are disproportionately imperiled compared to terrestrial fauna, according to the Nature Conservancy (Master, 1991) and the Endangered Species Committee of the American Fisheries Society (Williams et al., 1989~.
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From page 178... ...
In fact, many aquatic species are harmed by management practices that maximize populations of one or a few game species. In the Upper Mississippi River, floodplains are diked and water levels manipulated to maximize seed production on mud flats for the benefit of migratory dabbling ducks.
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From page 179... ...
Restoration and management of the riparian zone are usually more cost-effective in improving water quality and fish habitat than practices applied farther from the watercourse (Lupi et al., 1988~. Dynamism With few exceptions (spring-fed streams, drainage from extensive wetlands)
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From page 180... ...
In a gravel-bed stream, the flood may flush the accumulation of fine particles out of the interstices, thereby restoring the spawning habitat for trout or salmon (Milhous, 1990~. Restoration of the flow regime is one of the most neglected aspects of stream and river restoration.
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From page 181... ...
is an example of restoration of a predisturbance meander pattern and floodplain terrace. In contrast, the Old River Control Structure on the Lower Mississippi River represents an attempt to forestall the natural 1,000-year cycle of creation and abandonment of deltaic lobes and distributary channels (Penland and Boyd, 1985~.
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From page 182... ...
, as well as permanent residents adapted to life in the interstices between the substrate particles. In many intermittent streams, life retreats to the hyporheic zone when surface flow ceases or when floods threaten to wash organisms out of the water column.
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From page 183... ...
C) ~ " ~ cob ~y ~ ~ ~ BY Y Y o o o o o o o o o J ~ = ~ ~ 1 - o y an O 11 1 1 11 ~ ~ 1~6tudinal\ Downstream Scale: 100 km Floodplain Vegetated border ~ Non vegetated border I _ Permanency Nonvege~ated border i aquatic area Vegetated border 1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Floodplain FIGURE 5.2 Longitudinal and latitudinal structure of the Upper Mississippi River.
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From page 184... ...
~ 1 Cat C In o an C, Cal g a) I FIGURE 5.3 Hypothesized hierarchical structure of the Upper Mississippi River System floodplain.
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From page 185... ...
summarize the arguments for an approach to river restoration that treats the river and its floodplain or the stream and its riparian zone as parts of one ecosystem:
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From page 186... ...
Similarly, impacts to the riparian ecosystem such as livestock grazing can cause erosion of streambanks and enlargement of channels, thus influencing the functional qualities of the riverine ecosystem. Since the values and function are interdependent, the approach for restoration of riverine and riparian ecosystems must be integrated.
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From page 187... ...
(1990) evaluated the utility of these ecoregions in accounting for differences in fish communities in relatively undisturbed reference reaches of streams and rivers (1)
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From page 188... ...
At the same time, using criteria based on reference sites is not as costly as developing site-specific criteria an impossible task in many cases, where predisturbance conditions are not known. The natural structural and functional patterns of river-riparian ecosystems are disrupted by a variety of stresses, which are described next.
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From page 189... ...
Ecological \ impact of \ human-induced alterations / O Energy Source type, amount, and particle size of organic material entering a stream from the riparian zone versus primary production in the stream seasonal pattern of available energy Water QuaRty temperature turbidity dissolved oxygen nutrients (primarily nitrogen and phosphorus) organic and inorganic chemicals, natural and synthetic heavy metals and toxic substances ~ phi 13 Habitat Quality substrate type water depth and current velocity spawning, nursery, and hiding places diversity (pools, riffles, woody debris)
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From page 190... ...
Water quality (turbidity and chemical pollutiona) Water release mistiming Water supply deficit (from water withdrawals or drought)
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of the Clean Water Act (e.g., Illinois EPA, 1990; ORSANCO, 1990) and national water quality summaries (CEQ, 1989; Smith et al., 1987~.
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According to the Association of State and Interstate Water Pollution Control Administrators (1984) , 11 percent of the total river miles in the United States was ranked as having moderately to severely impaired use because of nonpoint sources of pollution.
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From page 193... ...
spend much more time and graze more heavily in the well-watered riparian area. Overgrazing by livestock can eliminate streamside vegetation directly, or indirectly as a result of caving and trampling of banks, which can lead to channel widening, channel aggradation, lowering of the water table, and decline in water quality downstream because of turbidity, sedimentation, and animal waste.
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From page 194... ...
Drainage and Channelization A U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service manual on stream channelization impacts (Simpson et al., 1982)
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Suspended Sediment Sediments constitute 47 percent of the materials introduced from nonpoint sources (ASIWPCA, 1984~. Particle size ranges from rocks, gravel, and sand to very fine silt.
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From page 196... ...
Therefore, although some adult organisms can withstand enormous amounts of sediment in water for several days or weeks, a population may eventually die out due to starvation, reproductive failure, or cumulative stress (Illinois EPA, 1979~. Thus, the long-term effect of chronic suspended sediment is to change the species composition of a body of water by changing the habitat and the food supply, and by bringing about differential rates of reproduction in different species.
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From page 197... ...
When sediment deposition exceeds sediment transport, deposits of fine sediment can cover gravel bottoms that many organisms need for feeding and reproduction, and may fill the deep pools and cover the rocks and woody debris where game fish live and feed (Roseboom et al., 1983~. Ellis (1936)
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From page 198... ...
In the Mississippi River, for example, extensive new plant beds are located near Montrose, Iowa, just upstream of Lock and Dam 19 (Sparks et al., 1990~. In the long-term view, however, these plant beds are only temporary because they will continue to collect sediment until they become higher than mean water level, at which time they will begin providing habitat for terrestrial creatures.
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From page 199... ...
The two most common causes of these fish kills are runoff of insecticides from freshly sprayed fields, usually when spraying is closely followed by heavy rains, and carelessness on the part of applicators who allow leftover chemicals to drip from their tanks (Illinois EPA, 1979~. Eroded silt also often carries with it organic matter that creates an oxygen demand in the water.
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From page 200... ...
Aside from the obvious effects of changing flowing water to standing water, altering downstream flow patterns of both water and sediment, and blocking migrations of aquatic organisms, dams alter water quality and initiate long-term changes in downstream channels, riparian zones, and floodplains. Release of cold, deoxygenated water from the depths of reservoirs adversely affects native stream organisms adapted to warmer, aerated water (NRC, 1987~.
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From page 201... ...
Sediments may accumulate in formerly productive channels and backwaters downstream, or a process of headward erosion can begin. During droughts, there may be too little base flow in these modified streams to support aquatic life and other beneficial downstream uses.
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From page 202... ...
Water displacement, propeller wash, and wakes from boats resuspend bottom sediments, increase bank erosion, and can disorient or injure sensitive aquatic species. Aquatic organisms may also be struck by hulls or propellers.
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From page 203... ...
Acid mine drainage a fluid generally 20 to 300 times as acidic as acid rain is responsible for at least a third of this ecological damage (KIeinmann and Hedin, 1990)
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From page 204... ...
Although some relatively low-pH streams contain brook trout, their absence from streams with higher pH may indicate that short-lived acidic episodes can determine the composition of fish communities in some regions. The effects of low pH on aquatic life are difficult to separate from the effects of other pollutants, physical habitat changes, and changes in stocking patterns that may be occurring simultaneously.
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From page 205... ...
bIndividual rocks are placed in the stream channel to focus the current to protect banks or to provide refuge for fish. CRoot wads may be anchored into the stream channel to generate eddy currents for creation of small pools (U.S.
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From page 206... ...
a Revegetation Regulation of land use in watershed Soil stabilization Water quality improvement Water temperature modification aNarver (n.d.) cold winter; then the entire population (Philipp and Whitt, 1991)
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From page 207... ...
long and free flowing. However, there are substantial segments of the Illinois River, Atchafalaya River, and Upper Mississippi River included in public lands (e.g., the Upper Mississippi River Fish and Wildlife Refuge)
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From page 208... ...
However, this control can be achieved by leaving gates at the lakes and relatively short lengths of the river channelized at the upper and lower ends. In between, the natural flood cycle and dynamic equilibrium will be restored (see case history, Appendix A)
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From page 209... ...
These include floodplain and riparian zoning, soil conservation in lieu of channel or reservoir dredging, removal of flood-prone structures, razing of unsafe dams, and reduction of government subsidies that promote overgrazing or deforestation of riparian zones. The tax dollars saved by these measures should be applied to other restorations that may not have offsetting economic benefits in the short term, but have high ecological or human values in the long term: chief among these should be preservation of biodiversity through preservation and restoration of critical aquatic habitats.
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From page 210... ...
Droughts such as the 1988-1989 drought in the Upper Mississippi Basin saw many municipalities asking for permits to withdraw virtually the entire flow of some rivers (e.g., the Mackinaw River in Illinois)
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From page 211... ...
Indians, timber barons, canoeists, trout fishermen, and others have all used the PM and the river seems to have evolved both because of and in spite of humanity's changing needs. The timber industry's exploitation of the Pere Marquette region was so encompassing and voracious that in the early 1900s experts pronounced the river "dead.": Among the many repercussions of the widespread clear-cutting were deforestation and its attendant effects on flora and fauna; water warming; siltation and bank erosion due to eradication of cover; and increased damage to banks, fish, and water quality due to the tremendous infusion of logs into the river.
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From page 212... ...
Forest Service. The Pere Marquette, though greatly changed, remains freeflowing, clean, and remarkably resilient.
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From page 213... ...
. In the eastern states, water quality rather than water quantity was the problem historically, and the relevant legal principle was "reasonable use" by riparian landowners, if that use did not interfere with the water rights of others along the river or stream (Ausness, 1983~.
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From page 214... ...
maturation in the 1980s. Congressional attitudes have responded to growing urbanization and environmental awareness by shifting emphasis from major flood control and other water resource projects to risk management, environmental improvement, protection of ecosystems, and urban water quality.
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From page 215... ...
, requiring federal agencies to prepare and consider a nonstructural alternative plan whenever structural water resource projects are proposed and encouraging specific consideration of the ecological values associated with floodplains as part of the evaluation process. The final trend has been decentralization of the federal role and greater sharing of the responsibility for floodplain management with state and local governments, in response to federal deficit reduction policies and growing technical expertise at the state level (Johnston Associates, 1989~.
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From page 216... ...
The Oconee River greenway is essentially a protection plan that controls land use for a mile on either side of the river. Fencing In many cases, recovery of riparian vegetation, channel morphology, and fish populations has occurred where livestock were simply excluded from the riparian zone.
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From page 217... ...
, and aspirators or other devices in hydroelectric dams to aerate discharge water. Structural modifications to the river-riparian ecosystems themselves range from the scale of species-specific habitat improvements (in fact, fish biologists use the term structure to refer to logs, root wads, or man-made devices that fish use for shelter)
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From page 218... ...
illustrates the use of "soft engineering" techniques and natural materials to combat stream and river degradation and bank erosion. Soft engineering techniques restabilize river channels and banks without straightening them and without confining water flows in concrete or riprapped channels.
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From page 219... ...
In 1982 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers identified more than 9,000 high-hazard dams out of 68,000 nonfederal dams inspected.
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From page 220... ...
The Milwaukee River restoration appears to be succeeding, although long-term (10-year) surveillance is needed to quantify changes in fish populations (Nelson and Pajak, 1990~.
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From page 221... ...
Although most of the original channel had filled with silt and sand, natural scouring removed most of the fine material within 6 months, leaving coarser : substrate that now: makes up: 64 percent of the channel and provides better habitat for smallmouth bass (Nelson and Pajak, 1990~. I: : The removal of the Woolen Mills Dam and restoration of a portion of the Milwaukee River, and the proposed removal of either the Edwards Dam or the chines Canyon Dam, may set precedents that could lead to other dam removals and river restoration efforts.
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From page 222... ...
Fish and Wildlife Service, have also been heavily involved in stream habitat rehabilitation. Federal involvement in stream projects dates at least from the mid-1930s, when Civilian Conservation Corps workers installed log and rock dams throughout streams in much of the West.
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From page 223... ...
(For an illustration of nature used as a model in river restoration, see Box 5.8; also see Box 5.6.) Changes made in the banks, channel, or gradient by those unable to anticipate either the future natural tendencies of the stream or the probable impact of their intervention on stream hydromorphology may be ill advised.
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From page 224... ...
224 cn o o 5s I_ ._, 9 A_ ·_' o cr U)
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From page 227... ...
227 o ._ of sit o u, ._ can ._ 5 o ct 5us tic 0~ ._._ ~._ _._ 50_ c~ ~._ 0 CL) ·0._ .~ ~0 o aucay PA0 A; up c 5 5 _ - o E 8 G E ~ ~ -- ° ~ O ~ c O ,~ E E 5 E ~E ':~ ~ ,, ~ ~ .= .= ~<,~ ~ ~ ~ J E ,, j 5 , 5 E - ~ L ·~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ., D - D D 0 5 E -_ 5 O E D - _ _, 5 B G o ~ U ~ ~ ~ ~ E ~a ~3 c ~ E ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ = ,: E `, =tb E ~ s, 5 3 5 _ E, 3 ~ e 5 a ~ 0 c" ~ a ~ ~ =~ ~ ~ _ .~: O cN t\5 ~ ,= ~ J .= ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ Ct 00 00 .
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From page 228... ...
Damage was done to roads , , ~ ~ and Irrigat on structures. Water quality suffered.
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From page 229... ...
. One fisheries expert has used selective herbicides along with mechanical brush cutting to make stream habitats more favorable to trout by removing 100 percent of the woody vegetation from both stream banks according to Hunt (1979~.
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From page 230... ...
Geologic factors (soil type, topography) influence the nature and amount of sediment production and the water flow pattern (e.g., streams dominated by ground water have much more stable flows than do runoffdominated streams)
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From page 231... ...
Chief among conceptual limitations on both management and restoration of fluvial ecosystems is the failure to consider the stream and its riparian zone or the river and its floodplain as components of one ecosystem. Ecologists have lagged behind hydrologists in arriving at this concept.
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From page 232... ...
The floodplain forests of the Upper Mississippi River at Burlington, Iowa, are flooded by the river for an average of 22 days per year (Swanson and Sparks, 1990) , and the average annual flood duration on the Atchafalaya River is 160 days (C.
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From page 233... ...
Without the appropriate conceptual and technical underpinning, restorationists often adopt a trial-and-error approach (Rosgen and Fittante, 1986~. Not surprisingly then, the literature on stream habitat enhancement is replete with accounts of the successes and failures of particular types of in-stream structures (Wesche, 1985; Hunt, 1988b; Rivers and Streams Technical Committee, 1990~.
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From page 234... ...
The department also worked cooperatively with soil and water conservation districts and Soil Conservation Service hydrologists on comprehensive basin plans and local projects. ~ Although increased public awareness of stream problems and technical assistance to riparian land owners were always important objectives of the program, public~participation in stream restoration received a boost Lion 1~988 when a forum of concerned citizens developed a long list~of river needs that included litter control, bank stabilization, restoration of fish : ~ : and wildlife habitat, and water quality monitoring.
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From page 235... ...
, undertake monitoring of restoration projects, and report results to the coordinator who in turn reports to the federation and the news media. Training has been provided by the Rivers and Streams Committee of the Missouri Chapter of the American Fisheries Society, as well as by the federation and the department.
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From page 236... ...
Bank erosion due to lateral migration will occur unless bank stabilization is utilized. Low dams must be constructed in conjunction with bank stabilization in these channel types.
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From page 237... ...
. Bar deposition up- and downstream of boulder and excessive bank erosion often occur.
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From page 238... ...
Floating Log Cover Rating Channel Types Limitations/Discussion B1, B2, C2 Good B1-1, C1-1, C1, C3, C4, C5 B3, B4, B5 Poor D1, D2 N/A At, A2, c6 No limitations. Overlapping logs reduces bank erosion.
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From page 239... ...
, these channel types may be subject to some bank erosion. Fair B3, B4, B5, Need bank stability measures on opposite bank C3, C4, C5 to prevent accelerated bank erosion and lateral migration.
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From page 240... ...
Need bank stabilization. Extensive construction may be needed to gain confinement.
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From page 241... ...
N/A A1, A2, B1, Not limiting due to existing low width/depth C6 ratios. Bank Cover Rating Channel Types Limitations/Discussion Exc.
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From page 242... ...
Gravel bed stream types.
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From page 243... ...
May not be effective given the limited area where critical shear velocities would not be exceeded. Can cause capacity reduction and increase bank erosion.
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From page 244... ...
The reference reaches should include, where possible, representatives of all orders of streams and rivers that occur in the ecoregion. Because remnant large riverfloodplain ecosystems are rare, portions of the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana and the Upper Mississippi River Fish and Wildlife Refuge and at least 50 other large rivers (greater than approximately 120 miles or 200 km in length)
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From page 245... ...
Minimum flows necessary for fisheries, canoeing, or other in-stream uses may be useful for providing a baseline of protection, but may not allow scope for restoration. Incremental methods estimate the quality and quantity of fish habitat at each increment of flow and are more suitable than minimal flows where tlie goal is to restore aquatic populations and where water is in greatt;dremand.
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From page 246... ...
In the 11 contiguous western states, the federal government owns 48 percent of the total land area, and therefore management practices by federal agencies have a major impact on the streams and rivers that drain those lands. Overgrazing by livestock on the 91 percent of the federal land where grazing is permitted is a major problem, particularly because cattle concentrate in the vulnerable riparian zones.
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From page 247... ...
· If stream or river erosion control, channel stabilization, streambank protection, or streambed modifications are necessary, "soft engineering" approaches, such as bioengineering techniques for bank stabilization and repairs, should be considered first, where appropriate, in preference to the use of "hard engineering" approaches that rely on dams, levees, channelization, and riprap. · To effect the restoration of floodplains, bottomlands, and riparian habitats, dikes and levees that are no longer either needed or cost-effective should be razed to reestablish hydrological connections between riparian and floodplain habitats and associated rivers and streams.
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From page 248... ...
Universities with experts in natural resou~ces;0rthydrology and/or State Water Resources Centers, based at univ.ermi-6es in every state, should also contribute the technical assistance required for the restoration of aquatic ecosystems through free.or at-cost expert hydrological and biological advisory services. National Rivers and Streams Inventory The.commfflee could not find a recent national assessment of the number of stream and river miles affected by channelization or leveeing.
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From page 249... ...
1975. Impact of Hydrologic Modifications on Water Quality.
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From page 250... ...
1985. Some effects of stream habitat improvement on the aquatic and riparian community of a small mountain stream.
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From page 251... ...
1984. The Effects of Hydrologic Modifications on Aquatic Biota, Stream Hydrology and Water Quality: A Literature Review.
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From page 252... ...
Pp. 7-15 in The 5th Trout Stream Habitat Improvement Workshop.
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From page 253... ...
Pp. 31-62 in The 5th Trout Stream Habitat Improvement Workshop.
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From page 254... ...
1974. Resuspension of bed material and wave effects on the Illinois and Upper Mississippi rivers caused by boat traffic.
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From page 255... ...
895-305. Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission, St.
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From page 256... ...
1989. Stream Habitat Assessment in States of He North Central Division, American Fisheries Society.
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From page 257... ...
1983. A Summary of Known Navigation Effects and a Priority List of Data Gaps for the Biological Effects of Navigation on the Upper Mississippi River.
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From page 258... ...
Working Paper 2 for Task D submitted to Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission, St.
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From page 259... ...
1991. Changes in Mississippi River water quality this century.
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From page 260... ...
1990. Upper Mississippi River System Environmental Management Program.
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From page 261... ...
1974. Some aspects of water quality and biology of the Missouri River.
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