Toward Sustainability A Plan for Collaborative Research on Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (1991) / Chapter Skim
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Appendix F: Integrated Pest Management for Sustainability in Developing Countries
Appendix F: Integrated Pest Management for Sustainability in Developing Countries
Pages 109-133
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From page 109... ...
were originally developed in relation to insect pest control, beginning with the publication of Stern et al.'s classic The Integrated Control Concept (1959~. The original concept emphasized the blending of biological and chemical control measures.
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From page 110... ...
Many of the techniques examined as components of IPM—forecasting of pest attacks, development of economic injury thresholds, use of pheromones in pest monitoring, use of selective pesticides, use of resistant crop varieties, timing of crop planting, and use of appropriate cultivations and crop rotations have already been incorporated into current pest control practices and have led to more rational use of pesticides. Although successful IPM programs have been developed for glasshouse crops and orchard fruit in developed countries, and for some field crops (for example, cotton and rice)
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From page 111... ...
THE PRACTICE OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT Integrated Arthropod Pest Management The integrated management of arthropod pests has had mixed successes. Most programs have been based on first identifying economic thresholds of damage below which control is not economically practical.
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From page 112... ...
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From page 114... ...
Some eradication programs, such as those for the Mediterranean fruit fly in Florida and California, have been relatively successful, but the cost in both economic and environmental terms probably precludes their implementation in most developing countries unless the program involves nonchemical methods. Cultural Control Before the advent of modern insecticides, manipulation of farming practices was the main pest control tool available to farmers.
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From page 115... ...
There is good evidence that such cropping patterns are very effective in minimizing arthropod pest attacks.
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From page 116... ...
Successful integrated insect pest management programs have also been developed for maize, fruit, forest trees, brassicae, and other crops. Integrated Disease Management In developing countries, plant diseases have been given less attention than insect pests.
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From page 117... ...
The conservation and possible use of these races in breeding schemes should be considered a priority in disease management programs. A third approach, chemical control, is problematic, as noted, because few chemicals are available to control diseases caused by bacteria and viruses.
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From page 118... ...
The addition of large amounts of organic matter to soils by Chinese farmers, which often produces suppressive soils, is probably one of the oldest biological control practices. Historically, many agricultural systems have incorporated large quantities of organic matter into soil, which results in less soil-borne disease and other important agronomic benefits.
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From page 119... ...
Most, but not all, of these practices are sustainable. Examples of Successful Integrated Disease Management Successful integrated management programs have been developed for a number of diseases important in modern agricultural systems.
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From page 120... ...
Secondary tillage, if delayed for two or more weeks after primary tillage, can destroy newly emerged weeds and create a relatively clean seed bed for the crop. Selective tillage includes rotary hoeing, cultivation between crop rows, hand hoeing, and hand weeding all operations specifically performed for weed control.
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From page 121... ...
Biological Control Biological control of weeds through the introduction of insect pests and pathogens specific to particular species of weeds has been successful in many situations, for both annual and perennial weeds (Charudattan and Walker, 1982; Rosenthal et al., 1984~. Unfortunately, these weed controls are often so specific and effective that private companies are not willing to
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From page 122... ...
An integrated approach to weed management should take into account the effect of weeds and weed control practices on other components of the cropping system. The presence of weeds at certain levels may enhance insect pest control by providing habitat and/or an alternative food sources for beneficial insects.
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From page 123... ...
Second, shallow tillage prior to planting can eliminate early-season weeds that germinate, and a delayed planting date in temperate climates allows the soil to warm up, which leads to rapid crop emergence and growth. During, and immediately after crop emergence, shallow mechanized tillage operations, such as rotary hoeing or harrowing, can be performed, followed by one or more passes with a row crop cultivator.
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From page 124... ...
Insecticides kill natural enemies of arthropod pests and nematodes, kill insects that feed on weeds, and kill arthropods that feed on fungi and other pathogens. · Fungicides kill pathogens of pest insects and weeds, kill fungi that are the main natural control agents of nematodes, and kill organisms that are antagonistic to pathogens.
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From page 125... ...
Organic fertilizers can decrease arthropod pest and disease incidence by increasing species diversity in favor of natural enemies, can absorb and inactivate pesticides, can provide alternative food for marginal arthropod pests, and can promote growth of fungi that control cysts and other nematodes. · Cultivations mix pesticides into soil and bring them into contact with pests, affect the incidence of arthropod pests and diseases, increase the persistence of pesticides in soil, affect the natural enemies of arthropod pests, influence the distribution of pathogens in soils, and affect the incidence of weeds by mechanical damage by burying and bringing up weed seeds.
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From page 126... ...
As outlined in the previous section, crop protection measures, whether chemical or biological, all interact strongly with cultivations, fertilizers, and cropping patterns. Only in a system that minimizes chemical use, as proposed in sustainable agriculture, can undesirable ecological and environmental effects, such as pollution of soil and water by pesticides, be truly minimized.
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From page 127... ...
Thus, tillage plays a major role in pest incidence and should be taken into account in designing farm management systems that maximize pest control. Nutrient Supply and Fertilizer There is good evidence that inorganic fertilizers can increase pest attack and the need for use of pesticides.
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From page 128... ...
They also decrease attacks by many invertebrate pests by increasing species diversity in favor of natural enemies (Altieri, 1985; Edwards, 1989) , by providing alternative food for marginal pests, by promoting the activity of pest antagonists, such as fungi, that attack nematodes (Kerry, 1988)
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From page 129... ...
If government decision makers and policymakers could be influenced to give adequate support and training to extension personnel, and if IPM specialists could be trained and adequately supported, the benefits to the agriculture of developing countries would be economic, substantial, and long lasting. Economic and Social Constraints The high cost of pesticides in developing countries seriously limits their use.
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From page 130... ...
Even when outside agencies cooperate in the development of IPM programs in developing countries, there is considerable cost to national governments. In today's world, crushing debt and the rising costs of petroleum energy have made it difficult for many developing countries to initiate new programs and to support their existing programs.
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From page 131... ...
Thus, the policies of developing countries are also a serious constraint to the initiation of IPM programs and long-term sustainable agriculture. Energy There are many concerns today about conventional agricultural systems that are highly energy intensive and built on a narrow genetic base, that emphasize increasingly high yields, and that lead to monoculture and sometimes to excessive erosion, pollution, and contamination by pesticide residues.
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From page 132... ...
1967. Report of the First Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Integrated Pest Control.
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From page 133... ...
Proceedings of FAO Symposium on Integrated Pest Control 1:11-17.
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