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3 Alternative Fuels
Pages 42-76

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From page 42...
... Alternative fuels are transportation fuels that The higher the reductions in LDV fuel consumption rate, are not derived from petroleum, and they include ethanol, the lower the reductions in fuel net GHG emissions would electricity (used in plug-in electric vehicles [PEVs] such as need to be to reach the GHG reduction goal.
From page 43...
... at the current level. In 2011, the Potential Gas Committee The fuel costs, net GHG emissions, investment needs, and increased its estimates such that 90 years of probable reserves resource requirements were analyzed on a consistent basis exist based on 2010 consumption.
From page 44...
... for 2030. the infrastructure for each fuel pathway.5 The assumed fuel economies are representative of on-road LDV averages · Estimated the net GHG emissions per gallon of gas- for 2030 described in the scenarios in Chapter 5.
From page 45...
... Biofuels require large-scale investments for biore- for biofuels is large because the net GHG emissions depend TABLE 3.3  2030 Fuel Infrastructure Initial Investment Costs per Vehicle Infrastructure LDV Fuel Use Investment Cost Alternative Fuel 2030 Investment Cost per Day ($/vehicle) Cost Burden Electricity BEV $330/kWh per day 8.9 kWh 2,930 Distributed (car owners, ratepayers)
From page 46...
... of 2005. economics, and policy determine the GHG emissions for RFS2 mandated an increase of over 200 percent in the use future alternative fuels.
From page 47...
... can use higher concentrations To qualify as a cellulosic biofuel, a biofuel would have to be of ethanol (up to 85 percent) , and many auto manufacturers produced from cellulose, hemicellulose, or lignin and reduce produce flex-fuel vehicles because of the CAFE credit13 they life-cycle GHG emissions by at least 60 percent compared receive (DOE-EERE, 2012c)
From page 48...
... Conversion processes of lignocellulosic biomass 3.2.4  Conversion Processes to fuels are discussed below in this chapter. Several technologies can be used to process biomass into liquid transportation fuels for the existing LDV fleet.
From page 49...
... Because biorefining is a developing and petroleum use for the LDV fleet in 2050 and would require evolving technology, it is reasonable to assume that yields about 703 million dry tons per year of biomass feedstock. will increase and that the capital costs will decrease as the A uniform annual construction rate of about $10 billion per technology matures.
From page 50...
... gasoline consumption in 2010 was in the report Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environ- just over 138 billion gallons. Blending all of this as E10 mental Effects of U.S.
From page 51...
... These predicted GHG emissions do not include the use of CCS in · The cost of natural gas generation strongly depends the production facility to reduce overall well-to-wheels GHG on the cost of fuel. Currently the cost of natural gas emissions.
From page 52...
... The existing value for natural gas combustion emissions Carbon tax ($/metric 0 35 73 152 in the AEO model is 0.433 kg CO2e/kWh.19 The upstream ton CO2e) GHG emissions for natural gas in the GREET model are 13.4 AEO base-case 3,963 4,158 4,633 5,140 kg CO2e/GJ.
From page 53...
... pricing, which restrained or the low GHG emissions may not be achieved as would charge consumers lower rates during off-peak hours older plants with higher emissions may be required to be kept (generally between 11 p.m.
From page 54...
... Level 3 charging stations reduce the annual GHG emissions from the entire U.S. power now can charge a typical battery of an electric vehicle to 80 system by about 80 percent by 2050.
From page 55...
... Those uses match the Finding: For electricity as a fuel for LDVs to be effective BEV's battery capability and charging time requirements in reducing net GHG emissions, the entire U.S. electric and suggest that BEVs initially, and perhaps permanently, power system has to shift largely to electricity producwill be concentrated in urban locations.
From page 56...
... major challenges still exist. The two major challenge areas Academic, industrial, and government efforts over the are the following: past 10 years to define this retail-fuel-oriented infrastructure have mapped out the needed technology improvements, · Making low-cost hydrogen with low GHG emissions.
From page 57...
... This process has low GHG emissions. equipment can be sized for the demand.
From page 58...
... were from the 2005 critical mass of hydrogen-refueling stations and FCEV sales, version. overcoming the high initial cost of hydrogen, and increasing · The distribution costs are estimated to be $2/gge, the use of production methods with low GHG emissions.
From page 59...
... commercializa reforming Distributed electrolysis, current 860 0 2,345 3,205 grid Coal gasification without CCS 2,250 225 2,345 4,820 Coal gasification with CCS 3,020 225 2,345 5,590 TABLE 3.15  Alternate Scenario Hydrogen Costs and Central natural gas reforming 400 225 2,345 2,970 GHG Emissions without CCS $/gge H2 kg CO2e/gge H2 Central natural gas reforming 740 225 2,345 3,310 with CCS Low-cost case 3.85 12.2 Biomass gasification without 1,040 225 2,345 3,610 Partial CCS case 4.10 5.1 CCS Low-GHG case 4.80 2.6    
From page 60...
... 3.4.8 Barriers Although technology is available to provide competitively 3.5.1 Current Status priced hydrogen from natural gas, technology improvements are needed to provide low-cost hydrogen that is also low in 3.5.1.1  GHG Emissions from CNG Use Net net GHG emissions. Continuous government support for RD&D is required.
From page 61...
... is the sum of 1,673 tcf in traditional reserves and 163 tcf in coal-bed reservoirs. Of the 1,836 tcf of probable reserves, 20  The CNG GHG emissions are estimated as follows: 14.2 kg CO2/mil- shale gas accounts for 616 tcf (33 percent)
From page 62...
... (See Technology Review, 2009, for In the year 2000, the 110,000 natural gas vehicles in a video schematic of these processes.) the United States consumed between 8.3 and 12.3 billion The newly reclassified shale gas reserves are located in standard cubic feet of natural gas, which is between 0.036 Louisiana, Texas, the Rocky Mountains, West Virginia, Penn- and 0.053 percent of the U.S.
From page 63...
... Department of Energy's Alternative Fuels and will indeed be most attractive for electric power generation Advanced Vehicles Data Center lists 975 public CNG refubecause of its low levelized cost. eling stations as of January 9, 2012 (DOE-EERE, 2012a)
From page 64...
... According to the tion Association's Vehicle Fuel System Code. CNG tanks DOE's Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center meet DOE and other government safety standards and have (DOE-EERE, 2011b)
From page 65...
... . petroleum and to reduce GHG emissions from the LDV The processing steps are significantly less complicated fleet.
From page 66...
... sectors and the level of production. Therefore, predicting The GHG emissions for the production of GTL fuel are, the future price of natural gas is difficult.
From page 67...
... The the biomass and coal gasification to make liquid fuels and direct liquefaction of coal involves reacting coal with hydro- electric power are clear from the studies available. A CBTL gen or a hydrogen-donating solvent.
From page 68...
... , 90 percent capacity utilization (2) $50/ Therefore, CCS is necessary if coal is to be used to make metric ton of CO2 pipelined and stored underground in 2020, $40 in 2035, liquid fuels with life-cycle GHG emissions in the range of and $30 in 2050; (3)
From page 69...
... CCS is being practiced for oil well stimulation in subsidiary, Medicine Bow Fuel and Power LLC, entered the North Sea, Algeria, and Saskatchewan, Canada, but at a into a contract to produce liquid fuels from coal and to sell scale much smaller than what is envisioned for a single CTL the carbon captured for enhanced oil recovery (DKRW facility. There are also a number of pilot demonstrations of Advanced Fuels LLC, 2011)
From page 70...
... Injected CO2 mixes with the oil in reservoirs and transport and refining of the same fuel from petroleum. For changes the oil's properties, enabling the oil to flow more CTL fuels to have life-cycle GHG emissions equivalent to freely within the reservoirs and be extracted to the surface.
From page 71...
... 3.8.3 Costs The cost of CO2 capture is $30-$40/metric ton of CO2 3.9  RESOURCE NEEDS AND LIMITATIONS for a coal gasifier process stream, about $90/metric ton for a Reducing petroleum consumption and GHG emissions natural gas combined-cycle facility (because of a lower con from the LDV fleet will have a significant impact on energy centration of CO2 compared to coal gasification) , and $70 resource use in the United States.
From page 72...
... These scenarios have not been optimized to minimize Both cases use the same vehicle and fuel technologies; costs, resource use, or GHG emissions. The reference scehowever, in the low-GHG cases, the technology and fuels nario reduces petroleum use by 25 percent, and the others used to generate electricity and hydrogen were modified to all meet or exceed the goal of an 80 percent reduction in reduce GHG emissions.
From page 73...
... demands on the associated infrastructure: TABLE 3.24  Fuel Demands for Illustrative Scenarios and Resources Used Scenario 2005 Actual Reference Biofuels Electric FCEV CNG Petroleum based fuels, billion gge/yr 124.8 93.1 17.2 13.9 3.8 4.1 GTL and CTL, billion gge/yr 0 7.7 7.7 7.7 0.8 0.8 Total biofuels, billion gge/yr 4.9 24.1 55.9 24.1 19.2 19.1 Electricity, billion gge/yr 0 1.3 0 14.4 1.6 1.0 Hydrogen, billion gge/yr 0 0.5 0 1.1 33.5 0.5 CNG, billion gge/yr 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 51.0 Petroleum reduction, % 25.4 86.2 88.9 97.0 96.7 Ethanol, % of liquid fuels 5.6 11.9 17.5 30.9 30.7 33.9 Resources Used to Power Vehicles, Reference Electric Grid Corn, million tons/yr 81 165 165 165 84 99 Other biomass, million tons/yr 0 208 703 220 325 208 Natural gas, billion cubic ft/yr 18 1,021 888 1,915 3,038 6,969 Coal, million tons/yr 0 50 39 150 108 14 Net GHG emissions reduction, % -- 11 67 55 60 56 Resources Used to Power Vehicles, Low GHG Electric Grid and Hydrogen Production Corn, million tons/yr 81 165 165 165 84 99 Other biomass, million tons/yr 0 209 703 226 358 209 Natural gas, billion cubic ft/yr 18 1,105 890 2,613 4,664 7,039 Coal, million tons/yr 0 41 39 54 15 6 Net GHG emissions reduction, % -- 13 67 72 85 58  
From page 74...
... 2012. Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of shale gas, natural gas, Dooley, J.J., R.T.
From page 75...
... International Electric Vehicles. Volume 1: Nationwide Greenhouse Gas Emissions.
From page 76...
... 2011. Electric Utility Preparations for Electric Vehicles.


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