Educating the Student Body Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School (2013) / Chapter Skim
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2 Status and Trends of Physical Activity Behaviors and Related School Policies
2 Status and Trends of Physical Activity Behaviors and Related School Policies
Pages 35-96
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From page 35... ...
• Given the large proportion of total waking hours spent at school and in school-related activities, remarkably little is known about students' physical activity behaviors during school hours and during school-related after-school activities. Despite some excellent research and a few good public health surveillance systems, current monitor ing of overall and school-related physical activity behaviors among continued 35
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From page 36... ...
It is also known that because children and adolescents spend so many hours at school, school-related physical activity must be a large contributor to overall physical activity among youth. Not known, however, is exactly how large the overall contribution is or the contribution of each segment of the school day -- transportation to and from school, physical education, recess, classroom time, and before- and after-school activities.
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From page 37... ...
Examples include school- and district-level policies on recess and training for physical education teachers, as well as community or neighborhood policies on active transport to and from school. Monitoring of policies and practices is improving but needs expansion and maturation.
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From page 38... ...
. Status of physical activity behaviors AMONG YOUTH This section reviews what is known about the status of physical ctivity a behaviors among youth, first for vigorous- or moderate-intensity activity, next for sedentary or light-intensity activity, and finally for vigorous- or moderate-intensity activity during the school day.
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From page 39... ...
. Aerobic activities have commonly been categorized based on the rate of energy expenditure, or intensity, at least in part because high rates of energy expenditure were known to be important for fitness training and were presumed necessary to reduce the risk of heart disease.
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From page 40... ...
Examples of Activities Sedentary Activity ≤1.5 METs Sleeping, lying down, sitting, watching television Light-Intensity >1.5-<3.0 METs Standing; walking slowly; Activity everyday activities such as getting dressed, making a bed, cooking Moderate-Intensity ≥3.0-<6.0 METs Walking, table tennis, ball Activity room dancing Vigorous-Intensity ≥6.0 METs Running at various speeds, Activity shoveling snow, mowing the lawn while walking with a hand mower of healthy body composition, and reduces the likelihood of acquiring risk factors for the development of chronic diseases later in life. The currently recommended dose of physical activity for children and adolescents is at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day, with vigorous physical activity on at least 3 of those days (Strong et al., 2005; PAGAC, 2008)
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From page 41... ...
Light <3.2 METs <1.8 METs Moderate 3.2-7.5 METs 1.8-3.3 METs Vigorous ≥7.6 METs ≥3.4 METs SOURCE: Adapted from Table D-1 in PAGAC, 2008. panel reported beneficial effects of regular physical activity on muscular health, cardiovascular health, adiposity, blood pressure, blood lipid levels, self-concept, anxiety, depressive symptoms, and academic performance.
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From page 42... ...
. Dose of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity has been mea sured in a variety of ways, including minutes per week, kilocalories or kilojoules of energy expenditure, or even miles or minutes of running per week.
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From page 43... ...
First, there is no lower threshold for benefit; some vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity is preferable to none. Second, the slope is steepest at the left side of the curve, suggesting that the most rapid reduction in risk occurs when the least physically active people become slightly more active.
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From page 44... ...
. In 2008 the Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee also reviewed the scientific evidence relating to physical activity and the health of children and adolescents (PAGAC, 2008)
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From page 45... ...
. Figure 2-3 displays the mean number of minutes of vigorous- or m oderate-intensity physical activity per day rather than the proportion who 60 50 40 Percentage 30 Middle School Students High School Students 20 10 0 No Days/wk 5 Days/wk 7 Days/wk FIGURE 2-1 Percentage of middle and high school students reporting they engaged in no days, 5 days, or 7 days per week of 60+ minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.
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From page 46... ...
, often called "objective" measures; and direct observation -- none of which are completely satisfactory. Self-report surveys, in which youth are asked to provide informa tion about their physical activity behaviors, have been the most common method of measurement.
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From page 47... ...
The YRBS, for example, inquires about participation in physical education classes and on sports teams. Self-reported information also has important limita tions and weaknesses.
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From page 48... ...
) devel oped to allow one or multiple observers to capture physical activity levels of youth across various settings and activities, such as physical education classes, recess, or leisure play in neighborhood settings (e.g., parks)
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From page 49... ...
. In a study of 6th-grade girls from six states, also using accelerometers to assess physical activity, white girls had the highest average number of minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, while African American girls had the highest prevalence of meeting physical activity recommendations (Pate et al., 2006b)
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From page 50... ...
Finding no differences in cardiovascular fitness among groups suggests that there also are no differences in overall amounts of vigorous- and moderate-intensity physical activity. Fewer data are available with which to assess the influence of socio economic status on physical activity behaviors, and these data, too, provide no clear picture.
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From page 51... ...
During the past 50 years, local and state governments have each provided about 45 percent of school funding, with the federal government providing about 10 percent. Considerable variation exists, however, among states and school districts in per-pupil expenditures for elementary and secondary education and in the sources of the funds.
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From page 52... ...
As noted above, however, information about the differences in physical activity behaviors among different racial/ethnic and socioeconomic groups is sparse and inconsistent. Sedentary or Light-Intensity Physical Activity Recent evidence indicates that light-intensity physical activity, although not likely a substitute for vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, is beneficial to health.
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From page 53... ...
Recent research among adults indicates that replacing sedentary activi ties with light-intensity physical activity while holding the volume of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity constant provides health benefits (Hu et al., 2003; Healy et al., 2008a,b; Katzmarzyk et al., 2009; Wijndaele et al., 2010, 2011; Grøntved and Hu, 2011; Matthews et al., 2012)
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From page 54... ...
. Various suggestions have been made about what aspects of youth's sedentary physical activity should be avoided and monitored, including limiting television viewing to less than 2 hours per day, limiting television viewing to less than 3 hours per day, limiting computer use to less than 3 hours per day, and limiting total media time to less than 2 hours per day (see, e.g., the Healthy People 2020 objectives [HealthyPeople.gov, 2012]
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From page 55... ...
Light-intensity physical activity can now be viewed as a healthy shift away from sedentary physical activity as well. Higher rates of energy expenditure are preferred over lower rates across the full range of intensities.
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From page 56... ...
Figure 2-6.eps Data from the YRBS and the NHANES are the most frequently cited. Based on accelerometer-assessed physical activity, youth aged 6-19 engage in sedentary physical activity 6-8 hours per day (Matthews et al., 2008)
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From page 57... ...
SOURCES: Matthews et al., 2008; TVB, 2012. 100 Percentage of Waking Hours 80 60 Vigorous Moderate 40 Light Sedentary 20 0 5 Years 8 Years 12 Years FIGURE 2-8 Percentage of waking hours spent in sedentary, light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity by girls aged 5 and 8 (all from Iowa)
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From page 58... ...
• Using a standardized high-quality physical education program can add another 5 minutes. High-quality or enhanced physical education 25 20 Minutes per Day 15 10 5 0 Mandatory Standardized Modified Classroom Walk/Bike After-School PE PE Curricula Recess Activity to School Programs FIGURE 2-9 Minutes per day of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity gained by implementing school-based policies.
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From page 59... ...
. Assuming that 35 percent of physical education time is spent in vigorous- or moderate- intensity physical activity, children spend an average of 4 minutes per school day doing vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education classes (see Table 2-1)
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From page 60... ...
Elementary 9 14 Middle 9 14 High Not applicable Not applicable If Enhanced Daily Physical Total School Estimated Current If Daily Physical Education, Classroom Hours Minutes Education (min) Activity, and Recess (min)
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From page 61... ...
. If the proportion of time they spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity during physical education were assumed to be similar to that for primary school students, they would average 4 minutes per day currently, 16 minutes per day if they attended the classes daily, and 23 minutes per day if the classes were both daily and of high quality (see Table 2-1)
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From page 62... ...
After-School Interscholastic and Intramural Sports, Physical Activity Clubs, and Other After-School Programs Despite the growing popularity of these after-school activities, no good estimates of the number of participants exist. As noted earlier, after-school activity programs for elementary and middle school students are estimated to add 10 minutes per day of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity (Bassett et al., 2013)
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From page 63... ...
. The largest change is an increase from 70 percent in 1995 to 84 percent in 2005 in the percentage of students who participate in physical education and who report averaging more than 20 minutes per class exercising or playing sports.
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From page 64... ...
. Sedentary or Light-Intensity Physical Activity The above-noted evidence accumulated during the past decade indicating the health benefits of light-intensity physical activity compared with sedentary-intensity activities has spurred interest in monitoring trends in
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From page 65... ...
As knowledge accumulated and the spe cial needs of children and adolescents were taken into account, the dose recommended for the latter age groups differed from that recommended for adults. Changes Over Time in the Recommended Volume of Physical Activity for Children and Adolescents Year Recommendation Comment 1985 Vigorous physical ctivity a Same as recommendation for 20+ min/day on for adults; activity should be 3+ days/week continuous 1995 Vigorous physical Same as recommendation a ctivity for 20+ min/ for adults; activity can be day on 3+ days/week or accumulated during the day in moderate physical activity 8- to 10-min bouts for 30+ min/day on 5+ days/week 2005 60+ min/day of mainly Recommendation specifically for v igorous- or moderate- children and adolescents; activity intensity physical activity should be varied, developmentally appropriate, and enjoyable Dose is the amount, or volume, of physical activity performed (see Box 2-2)
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From page 66... ...
By the mid-1990s, consensus had been reached that health ben efits accrued from moderate-intensity physical activity as well, and the recommended dose was expanded to include either the dose of vigorous physical activity previously recommended or a dose of 30 min or more per day of moderate-intensity physical activity on 5 or more days per week (Pate et al., 1995; HHS, 1996)
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From page 67... ...
. Children from Maryland's Eastern Shore spent 53 minutes per day less in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity and 34 minutes per day less in light-intensity physical activity than the Old Order Amish children
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From page 68... ...
. A review of evidence from around the world found that participation by youth in "active transport, physical education, and organized sports is declining in many countries" (Dollman et al., 2005, p.
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From page 69... ...
(2005) 2001 years to school Taking physical 28% decline education classes 11% increase Participating in school sports Tomkinson 27 countries 1958- 6-19 Various 0.36% and Olds (varying time 2003 years decline per (2007)
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From page 70... ...
The SHPPS compiled information collected through self-report surveys for use in assessing school-based physical education and physical activity policies and practices at the state, district, school, and classroom levels. State-level data were collected from education agencies in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.
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From page 71... ...
national board certification in physical education; and (12) state physical education coordinator requirements (NASPE and AHA, 2012)
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From page 72... ...
represents states with a law that uggests/encourages or imposes a less stringent requirement than the s TABLE 2-4 Prevalence of Policies at the State, School District, and School Levels Related to School-Based Physical Education and Physical Activity, from the School Health Policies and Practices Study (SHPPS)
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From page 73... ...
89 Schools • 3 days/week, all year, all grades 18 15 • daily, one-half year, all grades 16 15 • daily, all year, all grades 6 8 Physical States requiring physical education 82 93 Education: Districts requiring physical education 89 90 High Schools requiring physical education (94) 89 Schools • 3 days/week, all year, all grades 7 3 • daily, one-half year, all grades 12 7 • daily, all year, all grades 6 2 Physical States requiring/encouraging following national or state 84 82 Education: physical education guidelines General Districts requiring/encouraging following national or state 75 81 physical education guidelines Schools following national or state physical education 81 88 guidelines States requiring/encouraging following National 60 76 Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE)
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From page 74... ...
(%) PE Addressed in State Policya Elementary 94 96 96 96 98 98 Middle 94 96 96 96 98 98 High 92 96 98 98 98 98 Clear PE Curriculum in All Gradesb Elementary 59 61 61 63 63 63 Middle 55 57 59 61 61 61 High 41 41 45 47 47 49 Time Requirement of ≥150 minutes/week of PEc Elementary 10 12 10 10 10 10 Time Requirement of ≥225 minutes/week of PEd Middle 2 2 2 2 2 2 High 2 4 2 2 2 2 PE Promotes a Physically Active Lifestylee Elementary 57 61 67 73 75 73 Middle 57 61 67 73 75 73 High 57 61 67 73 75 73 PE Competency Assessmentf Elementary 55 59 65 71 73 73 Middle 55 59 65 71 73 73 High 53 57 63 69 71 71 PE Courses or Credits Required for Graduation and/or High 73 78 78 78 80 80 Count Toward GPA All Students Required to Receive Daily PE Elementary 4 6 6 6 6 6 Middle 4 6 6 6 6 6 High 2 4 4 4 4 4
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From page 75... ...
Teacher-Student Ratio for PE Specific and Required Elementary 8 8 8 8 10 10 Middle 8 8 8 8 10 10 High 8 8 8 8 10 10 Safe/Adequate PE Equipment and Facilities Specified Elementary 2 2 2 2 2 2 and Required Middle 4 4 4 4 4 4 High 2 2 4 4 4 4 PE Required to Be Taught by Qualified Instructorsg Elementary 14 16 18 20 24 25 Middle 16 20 20 22 25 28 High 12 16 18 20 24 25 District Required to Provide Training for PE Instructorsh Elementary 2 2 4 4 6 6 Middle 2 2 2 2 4 4 High 2 2 2 2 4 4 PE Waivers Prohibitedi Elementary 6 6 8 8 8 8 Middle 6 6 6 6 6 6 High 6 6 6 6 6 6 School Districts May Apply for Waiver from State-Level Elementary N/A N/A 2 2 2 N/A PE Requirement Middle N/A N/A 2 2 2 N/A High N/A N/A 2 2 2 N/A Students Required to Participate in an Annual Health Elementary 2 0 0 0 0 4 Assessmentj Middle 2 0 0 0 0 2 High 2 0 0 0 0 2 NOTE: GPA = grade point average; N/A = not available; PE = physical education; SY = school year. aDefinitely addressed; any mention of PE.
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From page 76... ...
. cOr requires schools to follow National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE)
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From page 77... ...
bIncludes goals for physical activity that are designed to promote student wellness in a manner that the local education agency determines is appropriate. cClear that each grade will receive physical activity outside of physical education.
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From page 78... ...
Trends in State Laws Related to Physical Education and Physical Activity Tables 2-4 and 2-5 show an increase over time in the number of state laws addressing physical education, revealing that by school year (SY) 2011-2012 nearly all states (98 percent)
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From page 79... ...
Some improvement has occurred over the past 6 years in states having a requirement for any percentage of time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education, with elementary schools seeing the largest increase in such requirements. Further, fewer than one-quarter of all states require physical activity outside of physical education for all grade levels, and only about 1 in 5 states require daily recess at the elementary level.
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From page 80... ...
District-level policies are coded using the same 0, 1, 2 scoring described above for state laws. Figures 2-13 through 2-16 show that local school districts have been steadily enacting and strengthening the physical education and physical
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From page 81... ...
Figure 2-13.eps Percentage Address Policy Percentage with Strong Policy Percentage of Districts Nationwide with a Policy 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 06-07 10-11 06-07 10-11 06-07 10-11 06-07 10-11 06-07 10-11 06-07 10-11 PE PE PE PE MVPA PE Addressed Curriculum Teaches Competency During Training for Each Grade About PA Assessment PE Teachers Lifestyle FIGURE 2-14 Selected physical education provisions in district wellness policies, by year. NOTE: Physical education is not a required element of wellness policies but is commonly addressed.
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From page 82... ...
NOTE: PA = physical activity; PE = physical education. SOURCE: Chriqui et al., 2012.
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From page 83... ...
Consistent with the absence of strong state laws, few districts have implemented strong policies meeting the national standards of at least 150 physical education minutes weekly at the elementary level and at least 225 physical education minutes weekly at the middle and high school levels. As with physical education provisions, school districts have steadily been increasing the number of other physical activity–related provisions included in wellness policies.
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From page 84... ...
Further, the 2011 YRBS found that 48-69 percent of students did not attend physical education classes in an average week. The Shape of the Nation Report also shows that in most states, all children in elementary and middle schools are required to take physical education when it is offered.
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From page 85... ...
. Across the nation, 52 percent of high school students attend physical education at least 1 day per week, and only 31.5 percent have daily physical education (CDC, 2012b)
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From page 86... ...
Seldom are time allocations for physical education enforced or are schools held accountable for policy enforcement. Overall, policies requiring increased physical education and physical activity at school each day have the potential to affect large numbers of children and adolescents and are an effective strategy for promoting regular physical activity.
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From page 87... ...
Aside from a few good one-time surveys of physical activity during physical education classes, little information is available on students' physical activity during the school day or in after-school programs. This lack of information is surprising given that school-related physical activity must be a large component of the overall volume of physical activity among youth and that vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity is vital to students' healthy growth and development and is associated with improved academic performance and classroom behavior (see Chapters 3 and 4)
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From page 88... ...
It is important to know not only how much vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity youth are performing but also how much of that activity is taking place in each segment of the school day (i.e., physical education, recess, classroom, transport to and from school, school-related before- and after-school activities)
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From page 89... ...
2001. Physical education and activity: Results from the school health policies and programs study 2000.
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From page 90... ...
2013. State policies about physical activity minutes in physical education or during school.
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From page 91... ...
2007. Sports participation and physical education in American secondary schools.
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From page 92... ...
2007. Physical education and physical activity: Results from the School Health Policies and Programs Study 2006.
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From page 93... ...
2012. The association of state law to physical education time allocation in US public schools.
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From page 94... ...
1994. Observed levels of elementary and middle school children's physical activity during physical education classes.
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From page 95... ...
2006. Children's pedometer-determined physical activity during the segmented school day.
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