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3 Risk Factors for and Consequences of Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors
Pages 77-142

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From page 77...
... This chapter describes what is known about individual, family, peer, neighborhood, and systems-level risk factors associated with victims and offenders of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors. In addition, to clarify the impact of these crimes, the chapter describes what is known about their physical, emotional, and behavioral health consequences, as well as their developmental, social, health, and legal implications.
From page 78...
... Risk Factors for Victims Individual-Level Factors At the individual level, a number of factors may increase boys' and girls' vulnerability to commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking. These include sexual abuse, physical abuse, and other forms of maltreatment; disruptions in normative development; the experience of running away or being homeless or thrown away; being placed in foster care or otherwise systems involved; being lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT)
From page 79...
... Societal Community Relationship Individual Risk Factors Risk Factors Risk Factors Risk Factors • Lack of awareness • Peer pressure • Family conflict, • History of child abuse, neglect, or of commercial • Social norms disruption, or maltreatment sexual exploitation • Social isolation dysfunction • Homeless, runaway, or "thrown-away" and sex trafficking • Gang involvement • LGBT • Sexualization of • Underresourced • History of being systems-involved children schools, (e.g., juvenile justice, criminal justice, • Lack of resources neighborhoods, foster care) and communities • Stigma and discrimination FIGURE 3-1  Ecological model adapted to illustrate the possible risk factors for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors.
From page 80...
... . Support for this perspective originates in studies reporting that youth identify the sexual abuse they experienced as a child as a major influence on their becoming involved in commercial sexual exploitation.
From page 81...
... Notably, the commercially sexually exploited youth had significantly higher rates of running away from home (see the discussion of this factor below) ; this finding suggests that it may not be the child sexual abuse alone but its consequences that heighten the risk for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors.
From page 82...
... In support of the above propositions regarding the indirect pathways through which child maltreatment increases the risk for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors, ample evidence documents associations between child sexual abuse and outcomes that have been linked with these crimes. For example, victims of child sexual abuse may begin to engage in sexual activity at earlier ages than nonvictims (Fergusson et al., 1997; Lodico and Diclemente, 1994; Noll et al., 2003; Springs and Friedrich, 1992; Wilson and Widom, 2010)
From page 83...
... that may link child maltreatment with high-risk behavior and/or victimization by commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking are discussed below. While the above studies suggest that child maltreatment, particularly child sexual abuse, may be associated with commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors, it should be noted that findings of the few prospective studies available suggest that only an extremely small proportion of children who are sexually abused subsequently become involved in trading sex for money or something of value (Lalor and McElvaney, 2010; Lamont, 2010)
From page 84...
... However, additional prospective, longitudinal research is needed to demonstrate more explicitly whether causal links exist between child sexual abuse and commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors. Disruptions in normative development  The terms disrupted development and disrupted transitions have been used to describe precocious transitions to adulthood, or the "rush to adulthood" perspective developed by Wickrama and other researchers (Wickrama and Baltimore, 2010; Wickrama et al., 2003, p.
From page 85...
... . It should be noted, however, that most studies of victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking are based on retrospective reports, which are subject to errors of memory and are not verifiable; the result may be underreporting or overreporting of experiences such as sexual abuse and other maltreatment (Hulme and Agrawal, 2004)
From page 86...
... . The risk of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking among homeless youth increases with a prior history of sexual abuse, as does greater sexual risk taking (e.g., having multiple partners, having unprotected sex)
From page 87...
... . The United Kingdom's Barnardo's, a social service organization with a long and deep involvement in working with homeless and thrown-away youth and victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking, notes that commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors occur gradually and incrementally, not suddenly (Barnardo's, 2012)
From page 88...
... Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth  Evidence suggests that LGBT youth may be at increased risk for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking. A number of factors contribute to this potential vulnerability.
From page 89...
... . That child sexual abuse has been shown to have a significant impact on these psychological factors, as described earlier, further supports a potential link between child sexual abuse and risk for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors.
From page 90...
... . While there is evidence demonstrating an association between child sexual abuse and mental health conditions, further research is needed to help understand potential links among psychogenic factors, impaired cognitive functioning, and mental health conditions as risk factors for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors in the United States.
From page 91...
... . One organization reports that the age at which commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking typically begin is between 12 and 14 (Shared Hope International, 2009)
From page 92...
... Because childhood adversity, and sexual abuse in particular, is a risk factor for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors, victims of these crimes also may be at heightened risk for these outcomes. When considering the findings of the ACE Study, it is important to note that the findings regarding early adversity likely can be generalized only to samples with similar demographic backgrounds (e.g., white, over the age of 50, with some college education)
From page 93...
... . Family-Level Factors As discussed earlier, child maltreatment, including child sexual abuse, physical abuse, and neglect, is consistently cited as a primary risk factor for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors (e.g., Flowers, 2001)
From page 94...
... . Other family risks for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors include domestic violence, drug use, serious mental illness, and sexual promiscuity in other family members, perhaps given their association with child maltreatment and neglect.
From page 95...
... . It is important to note that the familial risk factors described above also apply to many youth who do not become victims of commercial sexual exploitation or sex trafficking.
From page 96...
... , the degree to which adult neighborhood residents institute informal social controls against particular adolescent risk behaviors depends in part on their having shared values. Therefore, community norms about sexual behavior and what constitutes consent and coercion likely influence youth's involvement in commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking.
From page 97...
... , research has not thoroughly examined the role of neighborhood characteristics and public and private disinvestment in commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors. However, the available research reveals that the neighborhood context has important implications for sexual activity among young people, including sexual risk behaviors and sexual victimization.
From page 98...
... Several studies link appropriate supervision and monitoring of youth behavior with less involvement in risky behaviors and more adaptive behaviors; a similar process may be at work for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors. Community norms and expectations  Neighborhoods can shape perceptions of the types of opportunities available for social mobility, ideas about legitimate means of employment, and ideas about the acceptability of sexual behaviors and for whom.
From page 99...
... Involvement with these systems, particularly child protection, often is an appropriate protective response to prior abuse, neglect or maltreatment, poverty, homelessness, and many of the other risk factors for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors documented above. In some cases, however, involvement with these systems may actually pose additional risk for involvement in commercial sexual exploitation or survival sex for vulnerable youth.
From page 100...
... . The child protection system clearly plays a critical role in removing children from adverse circumstances that can serve as risk factors for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking, such as sexual and physical abuse and maltreatment.
From page 101...
... Further, without training regarding the complex set of forces that perpetuate commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking and those that prevent minors from experiencing continued victimization, law enforcement personnel and the law enforcement system may fail to understand what is needed to disengage youth from involvement in these crimes. As described further in Chapter 5, there are two areas of concern: conceptualization of minors who are commercially sexually exploited and trafficked for sexual purposes as criminals/ delinquents rather than victims, and the arrest and/or detention of victimized minors.
From page 102...
... Victims and survivors of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking may distrust official systems and services (e.g., child welfare, law enforcement, hospitals, and shelters) and experience institutional violence (i.e., violence or abuse perpetrated by institutions as opposed to individuals)
From page 103...
... Health care providers who fail to recognize, report, or address commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors may unknowingly contribute to additional exploitation and abuse. A health care workforce -- including school-based nurses, community health center providers, and community health workers as well as physicians and nurses -- that is adequately trained can recognize and address at-risk youth to prevent possible commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors and intervene with, report, and treat victims to help prevent further exploitation or health consequences (e.g., Goldblatt Grace et al., 2012)
From page 104...
... note, however, there may be barriers to implementing school-based programs focused on sexual health and sexual exploitation as a result of local, state, and federal policies that may limit the discussion of these issues at school. Chapter 8 includes an in-depth discussion of current and emerging practices in the education sector as well as challenges to and opportunities for preventing, responding to, and addressing commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors.
From page 105...
... Thus, the sexualization of girls may place them at risk for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking by shaping their own and others' -- including potential traffickers' and exploiters' -- expectations for how girls and women should be treated. In addition, online and digital technologies, such as the Internet, online classified sites, social networking sites, chat rooms, and mobile phones, are parts of a complex social system that can be used by children and adults in ways that can impact both risk and protective factors for the commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors in the United States.
From page 106...
... Risk Factors for Offenders This section examines the individual risk factors associated with those who exploit victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors. The focus is on two types of exploiters: traffickers and solicitors/ purchasers of commercial sexual exploitation (as defined in Chapter 1)
From page 107...
... Moreover, the available research indicates that technology cannot serve as a panacea for any social ill, including online risks to safety for youth and the commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors. Taken together, the available research suggests that the Internet, online technologies, and digital networks are a major component of the lives of children and adolescents, yet these technologies in and of themselves likely are not the only determinants of positive or negative effects.
From page 108...
... Rigorous studies examining factors associated with the risk of becoming or being an exploiter are extremely difficult to conduct given the hidden nature of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors. Moreover, despite recognition that understanding the risk factors for becoming an exploiter is critical to inform prevention and intervention efforts, the vast majority of research examining risk factors for commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors focuses on victims.
From page 109...
... from the Chicago area revealed that risk factors for becoming a trafficker were similar to those identified for becoming a victim of commercial sexual exploitation (Raphael and Myers-Powell, 2010)
From page 110...
... Specifically, these investigators suggest that the effect of child sexual abuse on sexually coercive behavior later in life was partly accounted for by early sexual initiation; on the other hand, the effect of child physical abuse on sexually coercive behavior was accounted for by delinquent behaviors during adolescence (Casey et al., 2009)
From page 111...
... Given the overlap of risk factors for victims and traffickers as well as the finding that some victims become traffickers, it is possible that programs focused on early intervention to prevent victimization by commercial sexual exploitation also could prevent individuals from becoming traffickers. Similarly, those factors known to be protective for adolescents, such as having a supportive nurturing adult, may also be factors that can protect children from becoming traffickers.
From page 112...
... points out that in some cultures, purchasing sex is a normal sexual behavior of men. In Thailand, for example, it is common for men to have sex for the first time with a prostitute (Ben-Israel and Levenkron, 2005)
From page 113...
... summary report; the Department of Justice's A National Overview of Prostitution and Sex Trafficking Demand Reduction Efforts: Final Report [Shively et al., 2012]
From page 114...
... One exception is the Georgia Demand Study, an attempt to quantify and describe the demand for commercial sexual exploitation of children in Georgia (The Schapiro Group, 2009)
From page 115...
... . Thus, a comprehensive understanding of the impact of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors includes health, developmental, and legal consequences, as well as the risks of reexploitation and further victimization.
From page 116...
... Physical Health Consequences Because the few domestic studies of the impact of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors focus primarily on psychological trauma, it is necessary to examine research from related fields to understand the potential physical health implications. For example, research on the impact of child abuse on the developing brain shows an association with mental health problems (i.e., depression, PTSD, suicidality)
From page 117...
... Women trafficked for sex in the United States had poorer health outcomes than women trafficked internationally and nontrafficked sex workers. While it is difficult to draw any conclusions about underage victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking from this research, the long-term health consequences appear to be severe for adult victims who experience continued exploitation (Farley and Barkan, 1998)
From page 118...
... . Given documented associations between child sexual abuse and commercial sexual exploitation of minors, this research suggests that victims of commercial sexual exploitation may be at risk for depression, suicide, and PTSD (Jeffreys, 2000)
From page 119...
... . Addiction and substance abuse are higher among victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking as well.
From page 120...
... . Societal Consequences Continued involvement in commercial sex work and reexploitation among youth with a history of victimization may increase other youth's exposure to such victimization through modeling or peer influence, and may overwhelm systems attempting to address commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors and their adverse outcomes.
From page 121...
... , the risk of reexploitation for victims of commercial sexual exploitation varies for those still living in their own homes and those who have left home as either runaways or "thrownaway" youth. The former victims are at substantial risk of reexploitation in cases in which families are complicit and in which the commercial sexual exploitation has not been identified by social service agencies, schools, police, or health systems and in which, therefore, no child protection intervention has occurred.
From page 122...
... Little research has addressed the specific question of whether child victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking are more likely than nonvictims to engage in criminal behavior as adults. However, some research suggests an association between commercial sexual exploitation
From page 123...
... While studies focused on consequences for commercially sexually exploited children and adolescents are rare, the data based on child sexual abuse are useful given evidence that these problems are linked in some cases. Overall, research suggests that victims and survivors of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking face developmental, social, societal, and legal consequences that have both short- and long-term impacts on their health and well-being.
From page 124...
... 3-7 Substance use is a risk factor for commercial sexual exploita tion and sex trafficking of minors and also may perpetuate exploitation. 3-8 The multiple systems that engage youth (e.g., health care, edu cation, juvenile justice)
From page 125...
... 2012. Site visit presentation to the Committee on the Commercial Sexual Exploita tion and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, on The International Organiza tion for Adolescents, July 11, 2012, Chicago, IL.
From page 126...
... 2011. Human trafficking and technology: A framework for understanding the role of technology in the commercial sexual exploita tion of children in the U.S.
From page 127...
... 2004. The commercial sexual exploitation of children and young people: An overview of key literature and data.
From page 128...
... 2008. The commercial sexual exploitation of children in New York City.
From page 129...
... 2012. Site visit presentation to the Committee on the Commercial Sexual Ex ploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, on Larkin Street Youth Services, May 12, 2012, San Francisco, CA.
From page 130...
... 2012. Site visit presentation to the Committee on the Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, on My Life, My Choice, March 23, 2012, Boston, MA.
From page 131...
... 2012. Site visit presentation to the Committee on the Commercial Sexual Ex ploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, on the Girls Educational and Mentoring Services (GEMS)
From page 132...
... 2010. Child sexual abuse, links to later sexual exploitation/ high-risk sexual behavior, and prevention/treatment programs.
From page 133...
... 2012. Sex trafficking of domestic minors in Phoenix, Arizona: A research project.
From page 134...
... 2011. Internet-facilitated commercial sexual exploitation of children: Findings from a nationally representative sample of law enforcement agencies in the United States.
From page 135...
... 2012. Site visit presentation to the Committee on the Com mercial Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, on the Safe Horizon Services, September 12, 2012, New York.
From page 136...
... 2012. Workshop presentation to the Committee on the Commercial Sexual Exploita tion and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, on the Standing Against Global Exploitation, May 12, 2012, San Francisco, CA.
From page 137...
... 2012. Site visit presentation to the Committee on the Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, San Francisco Juvenile Probation Department, May 11, 2012, San Francisco, CA.
From page 138...
... 2011. Examining mediators of child sexual abuse and sexually transmitted infections.
From page 139...
... 1988. Re lationship of chronic pelvic pain to psychiatric diagnosis and childhood sexual abuse.
From page 140...
... 2012. Site visit presentation to the Committee on the Commercial Sexual Ex ploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, Safe Horizon, September 12, 2012, New York.
From page 141...
... 1991. A risk profile compari son of homeless youth involved in prostitution and homeless youth not involved.


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