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From page 133... ... 6 Recommendations for Ethics Responsibilities and Decision Framework An ethics framework to guide decision making is more than just the identification of applicable, individual ethics principles. The translation of ethics principles into ethical policy generally requires specific actions by specific actors across multiple levels, including individual, administrative, and societal. Read the entire page →
From page 134... ... 134 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT logically flow from the ethics principles outlined in Recommendation 2 if long duration and exploration spaceflights are acceptable. Specifically, the ethics principles need to be incorporated into decisions about whether risks in excess of those allowed under current health standards are acceptable, and, if so, what conditions must be satisfied to engage in ethically acceptable long duration and exploration class missions.1 The committee's view is that such responsibilities are consistent not only with the principles identified but also with a range of ethical theories, without any intended or unintended endorsement of a particular ethical theory. Read the entire page →
From page 135... ... ETHICS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DECISION FRAMEWORK 135 • Provide equality of opportunity for participation in long duration and exploration spaceflights to the fullest extent possible. For example, fairness in crew selection means that NASA should accept some group differences in pop ulation risk in order to create equality of opportunity to participate in missions, and accommodate individual var iance from population-based risk estimates to the extent that individual differences do not jeopardize mission operations. Read the entire page →
From page 136... ... 136 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT • Voluntary decision making (i.e., free of undue influence or pressure) • Sufficient understanding and comprehension of the elements involved (e.g., nature, duration, purpose, and risks) Read the entire page →
From page 137... ... ETHICS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DECISION FRAMEWORK 137 astronauts with detailed risk information during all phases of their training and work, including regular updates and involvement of the astronauts in all phases of the analysis and dissemination of risk data (Behnken, 2013) Read the entire page →
From page 138... ... 138 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT involved. Even after disclosure of the best available information about risks to the decision maker, a truthful and complete disclosure must acknowledge that material risks may exist that remain unforeseen and unknown, and many risks that are anticipated are impossible to quantify with any precision. Read the entire page →
From page 139... ... ETHICS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DECISION FRAMEWORK 139 timations, and management. In addition to these efforts, NASA has opportunities to strengthen its policies about collection and analysis of data relevant to health risks and uncertainties. Read the entire page →
From page 140... ... 140 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT Independent Advice In the United States, independent advisors or decision makers are commonly involved in regulatory activities or policy determinations that involve high-risk activities. Many institutions charged with engaging in risky activities are also responsible for related risk management assessments. Read the entire page →
From page 141... ... ETHICS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DECISION FRAMEWORK 141 sis should include people with varying but credible views on mission benefits, risks, and safety countermeasure feasibility to ensure a thorough and exhaustive analysis before NASA reaches any final decisions. Transparency Successful long duration and exploration missions require sufficient levels of transparency regarding policy and procedure development and implementation to promote accountability, provide a mechanism and incentive for amending decisions, and build trust among stakeholders. Read the entire page →
From page 142... ... 142 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT eral Register publication requirements,6 NASA is not required to publish its health standards in the Federal Register for formal rulemaking.7 In most cases, it would be possible for NASA to use the Federal Register in a way that would not needlessly delay or interfere with sound and timely decisions. The committee believes that using mechanisms such as the Federal Register to enhance transparency about decisions regarding health standards for long duration and exploration spaceflights would increase understanding about motivation, goals, and objectivity and promote stakeholder trust and willingness to support the commitment of resources required for long duration and exploration missions. Read the entire page →
From page 143... ... ETHICS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DECISION FRAMEWORK 143 separate set of health standards. This approach presumably would entail setting a more permissive ceiling on allowable risk for long duration and exploration missions under conditions in which existing evidence and knowledge make it nearly impossible to quantify those ceilings. Read the entire page →
From page 144... ... 144 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT The first and broadest decision (Level 1) is whether, and under what conditions, any missions that are unlikely to meet current health standards are ethically acceptable. Read the entire page →
From page 145... ... ETHICS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DECISION FRAMEWORK 145 BOX 6-1 Decision Framework -- Level 1: Decisions About Missions That Fail to Meet Health Standards Decision points: • Should NASA conduct space missions that will (a) fail to meet health standards, (b) Read the entire page →
From page 146... ... 146 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT of health standards, improve mission safety, and reduce risks for current and future astronauts. Employers that knowingly expose employees to risks have an ethical responsibility to provide protection to the extent possible and to address the harms that occur when protection fails or turns out to be inadequate. Read the entire page →
From page 147... ... ETHICS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DECISION FRAMEWORK 147 lection of proposed criteria and to allow sufficient time for NASA to engage in an independent review of the selected process and criteria, thereby ensuring both objective and broad input about engagement in highrisk activities and associated risk management decisions. The committee emphasizes that, even if determined to be ethically acceptable, exceptions to existing health standards should only be granted in rare circumstances and should increase the responsibilities of NASA and society. Read the entire page →
From page 148... ... 148 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT processes to ensure that the relevant ethics responsibilities are implemented before, during, and after flight and that the public has access to decisions and actions related to those responsibilities. Given the long lead time of most mission planning, the ethical review process should include periodic reassessments, as warranted, during the period from provisional approval to launch. Read the entire page →
From page 149... ... ETHICS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DECISION FRAMEWORK 149 Because NASA's health standards reflect "the best available scientific and clinical evidence" (NASA, 2007, p. Read the entire page →
From page 150... ... 150 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT these differences, efforts to insulate astronauts from actual or perceived undue pressure to participate in long duration and exploration spaceflights are essential. In addition to individual astronauts' decisions about whether to participate in long duration and exploration spaceflights, Level 3 also requires NASA to make decisions about the balance between individual risk susceptibilities affecting health and the need for a diverse mission crew. Read the entire page →
From page 151... ... ETHICS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DECISION FRAMEWORK 151 that every astronaut candidate would be found to have one or more marker of increased sensitivity. Depending on the long-term vision for human space travel, it will likely be important to understand the impact of spaceflight and the space environment on individuals with varied sensitivities and susceptibilities. Read the entire page →
From page 152... ... 152 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT Boyd, A Read the entire page →

From page 133...

... 6 Recommendations for Ethics Responsibilities and Decision Framework An ethics framework to guide decision making is more than just the identification of applicable, individual ethics principles. The translation of ethics principles into ethical policy generally requires specific actions by specific actors across multiple levels, including individual, administrative, and societal.