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From page 45...
... 3 Health Risks In considering the ethics issues that will emerge when making decisions about sending humans into harm's way on long duration and exploration spaceflights, the committee decided to examine some of the health risks that illustrate key ethical challenges and tensions in risk and decision making. It is important to note that the stressors and health risks may vary from mission to mission, depending on the remoteness of the destination and many other factors.
From page 46...
... 46 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT • bone demineralization, and • radiation exposure. MISSION OPERATIONS RISKS Although there have been many successful space missions over the past 50 years, the substantial risks undertaken by astronauts are most evident in documented "near misses" and tragic losses of life.
From page 47...
... HEALTH RISKS 47 tle flight (Behnken et al., 2013)
From page 48...
... 48 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT spaceflight, the results are presented in an "unattributable" manner and do not include dates or missions to preserve privacy and confidentiality (Mader et al., 2011)
From page 49...
... HEALTH RISKS 49 and indicating the follow-up testing and monitoring that are required (Alexander et al., 2012)
From page 50...
... 50 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT risk is listed as "unacceptable" on the Human Research Roadmap (see Table 2-2) for missions to the ISS for 12 months, to a near-Earth asteroid, or to Mars, and "insufficient data" for a lunar mission (NASA, 2013)
From page 51...
... HEALTH RISKS 51 Overview and Risk Identification Much of the evidence regarding behavioral health risks associated with long duration spaceflight is derived from anecdotal evidence (Aldrin, 1973; Lebedev, 1988; Burrough, 1998; Linenger, 2000) , archival and observational data collected during spaceflight (Kanas et al., 2007; Stuster, 2010)
From page 52...
... 52 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT Risk Management: Countermeasures and Research Analog and other types of studies have identified measures that can prevent or mitigate behavioral health, sleep impairment, and cognition risks. Countermeasures that have been successfully implemented for ISS operations include working with ground control regarding scheduling, support services from operational psychology personnel, multiple layers of accountability when conducting critical tasks, and education for ground crews (Flynn, 2005; Slack et al., 2009)
From page 53...
... HEALTH RISKS 53 BMed 2: What are the most effective methods to predict, detect, and as sess decrements in behavioral health (which may negatively affect per formance) before, during, and after spaceflight missions?
From page 54...
... 54 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT Sleep and Cognition Risks Sleep Gap 1: We need to identify a set of validated and minimally obtru sive tools to monitor and measure sleep-wake activity and associated performance changes for spaceflight. Sleep Gap 2: We need to understand the contribution of sleep loss, circa dian desynchronization, extended wakefulness and work overload, on individual and team behavioral health and performance (including oper ational performance)
From page 55...
... HEALTH RISKS 55 Individual characteristics identified as predictors of social compatibility in analog studies and surveys of astronaut personnel include low extraversion and high introversion (Palinkas and Suedfeld, 2008) , high positive instrumentality (goal oriented, active, self-confident)
From page 56...
... 56 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT Polar Programs requires that all candidates for winter-over duty at Antarctica's Amundsen-Scott South Pole and McMurdo stations undergo a psychiatric evaluation conducted by a civilian contractor.
From page 57...
... HEALTH RISKS 57 BONE DEMINERALIZATION Bone demineralization during exposure to microgravity illustrates the multiple parameters of a set of related health risks; how these risks are assessed, studied, and managed by NASA; countermeasure development; and interaction with engineering systems. Overview and Risk Identification Bone demineralization in microgravity is a well-recognized and well-studied phenomenon that still is not completely understood.
From page 58...
... 58 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT the diet have all been implicated as contributing factors and are all amenable to careful nutritional adjustment (Smith et al., 2012)
From page 59...
... HEALTH RISKS 59 other associated predisposing factors (Ploutz-Snyder, 2013)
From page 60...
... 60 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT microgravity, the physical stress of landing, exposure to and activities in the fractional gravity of Mars (0.375 of the gravity of Earth; NASA, 2014d) , physical stress during takeoff from Mars, exposure to microgravity again, and finally physical stress during landing on Earth.
From page 61...
... HEALTH RISKS 61 flight as a result of an accumulating exposure (progressive injury to the blood-forming system) ;" and "probability of late radiation response" (p.
From page 62...
... 62 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT plied for radiation exposures incurred during missions in LEO. Further NCRP reports will deal with other space situations" (pp.
From page 63...
... HEALTH RISKS 63 of NCRP Report 132, published in 2000, NASA proposed to add a 95 percent confidence interval to the 3 percent limit. The current radiation permissible exposure limits with the 95 percent confidence interval was formally accepted in March 2007 (NASA, 2007)
From page 64...
... 64 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT ginally effective at reasonable thicknesses; increasing the thickness of the shielding adds substantial mass with minimal additional reduction in exposure (NRC, 2008)
From page 65...
... HEALTH RISKS 65 ducted within the standards, these standards impose potential limitations on long-duration missions (e.g., a 1-year stay on the ISS) or missions with architectures and objectives outside of LEO.
From page 66...
... 66 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT 150 to 250 days (Cucinotta et al., 2013a)
From page 67...
... HEALTH RISKS 67 TABLE 3-1 Estimates of Safe Days in Deep Spacea Average solar maximum GCR and one significant solar storm (similar to that which occurred Average solar minimum GCR in August 1972) Age at NASA 2012 NASA 2012 NASA 2012 Exposure U.S.
From page 68...
... 68 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT SUMMARY The examples provided in this chapter illustrate the range of issues that are faced as NASA makes decisions about health standards for long duration and exploration spaceflights. The potential short- and long-term health impacts encompass many systems of the human body as well as behavior and performance issues.
From page 69...
... HEALTH RISKS 69 Behnken, R., M Barratt, S
From page 70...
... 70 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT Flynn, C
From page 71...
... HEALTH RISKS 71 Linenger, J
From page 73...
... HEALTH RISKS 73 Sandal, G
From page 74...
... 74 LONG DURATION AND EXPLORATION SPACEFLIGHT Watkins, S

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