Responding to Oil Spills in the U.S. Arctic Marine Environment (2014) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
2 Environmental Conditions and Natural Resources in the U.S. Arctic
2 Environmental Conditions and Natural Resources in the U.S. Arctic
Pages 25-66
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The chapter begins with a discussion of the physical environment: ocean, marine weather, sea ice, and coastal characteristics and processes -- conditions that would be encountered in the event of an oil spill in Arctic waters. A discussion of Arctic ecosystems follows, with an emphasis on bio logical information that would be important for oil spill response, including monitoring approaches and data needs for incorporation into spill trajectory models or ecosystem models.
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High-frequency radar systems in the Chukchi Sea, which map surface ocean cur 26 R02581 -- Oil Spills.indd 26 7/17/14 11:15 AM
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in the ocean mixed layer beneath sea ice in the Beaufort Sea (Timmermans et al., 2012) and in the mixed layer in ice-free conditions in the Chukchi Sea (Timmermans and Winsor, 2013)
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(2011) examined significant wave heights in the Chukchi Sea during 1993-2011 and found a 2-2.5 cm/yr increase in significant wave height, which is consistent with increased fetch accompanying sea ice retreat in this region over the same period.
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In areas that are of interest to industry, sea ice monitoring is generally performed more consistently and with higher resolution than elsewhere in the Arctic. This section describes seasonal and spatial characteristics of the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea ice environments in order to set the context for spill response procedures and obstacles in the next chap ter.
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. Oil spilled under growing first-year ice will become encapsulated in a layer of new ice within 12-48 hours, depending on the thickness of the ice, snow cover, and ambient Figure 2.3 Cross-section of typical Beaufort Sea ice zones.
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The Chukchi Sea was the subject of intense study from 1985 to 1990, related to exploration activity and development proposals from a number of companies. In the early 1990s, interest in transporting gas from the North Slope led to a series of comprehensive studies of ice conditions in 33 R02581 -- Oil Spills.indd 33 7/17/14 11:15 AM
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. Further discussion of projected changes in timing and extent of sea ice in the Bering and Chukchi Seas is found in Douglas (2010)
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Sea ice dominates the Chukchi Sea from November to early July on average, 4 to 6 weeks shorter than in the Beaufort Sea. Fast ice begins to break up in early June, a month ahead of the Beaufort Sea.
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Source: NASA. 36 R02581 -- Oil Spills.indd 36 7/17/14 11:15 AM
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This section focuses on a few of these key forces, which include coastline classifications, transport of freshwater into the marine environment, and the role of permafrost with respect to coastline stability and hydrology. Coastline Classifications Detailed mapping of coastlines, including geometry and elevation profiles, and knowledge of sediment size, shoreline stability, exposure to wave energy, and vegetation type are critical to under stand potential effects of an offshore oil spill and post-oiling recovery of the coastline and associated habitats or protected environments -- tundra, barrier islands, beaches and spits, lagoons, lakes, and deltas.
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Significant amounts of suspended sedi ments can be deposited on top of nearshore sea ice during flood events. In the case of an oil spill, these sediments could become contaminated and incorporated into the ice, and later redeposited as the ice breaks up and moves.
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The use of ESI maps in spill response can reduce environmental impacts of oil spills and cleanup activities. A number of such maps have been prepared for Alaska, including the North Slope/Chukchi (prepared in 2005)
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Poor charting could increase the cost of an oil spill response, as untrustworthy routes or transits require more comprehensive planning. Finally, poor nautical charts hinder preparedness, which could have negative impacts for oil spill response.
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Several types of data have been used to approximate baselines for natural resource damage as sessments in past oil spills: (1) historical data from either published or unpublished sources (time series are particularly useful for identifying trends and natural variability)
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In February 2013, the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee (IARPC) produced a five-year Arctic research plan for its 14 federal agency partners, which included in its priorities further study of Arctic marine ecosystems and sea ice (NSTC, 2013)
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. For example, a 2013 paper analyzing the scat of polar bears revealed prey switching and reflected a change from foraging on sea ice for seal pups to foraging on land for snow geese, goose eggs, and various plant materials (Gormezano and Rockwell, 2013)
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. In the higher trophic levels, walrus and polar bears depend on sea ice as a platform to access rich feeding grounds offshore, and some birds and seals rely on sea ice for nesting areas and rookeries.
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In addition, not all 46 R02581 -- Oil Spills.indd 46 7/17/14 11:15 AM
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Phytoplankton are transported to the Chukchi from the Bering Sea (Hopcroft et al., 2010) , and blooms occur beneath pack ice in the Chukchi Sea because light transmission increases due to thinning of the ice cover and proliferation of melt ponds (Arrigo et al., 2012)
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Fishes There is only sparse benchmark information regarding northeastern Chukchi Sea ecosystems and Arctic marine fishes (Figure 2.8; Johnson, 1997; Power, 1997; Mecklenburg et al., 2002, 2008)
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. A recent BOEM-funded study 49 R02581 -- Oil Spills.indd 49 7/17/14 11:15 AM
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, where these two eiders 51 R02581 -- Oil Spills.indd 51 7/17/14 11:15 AM
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Other cetaceans and most pinnipeds are primarily seen during the open water season, although ringed seals, bearded 15 See http://www.afsc.noaa.gov/techmemos/nmfs-afsc-245.htm. 52 R02581 -- Oil Spills.indd 52 7/17/14 11:15 AM
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The most recent population estimate for the Beaufort Sea stock of belugas was from 1992, 53 R02581 -- Oil Spills.indd 53 7/17/14 11:15 AM
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showed that the aerial surveys for the Chukchi Sea population of belugas only covered a small portion of their range, so it is likely that the population is considerably larger. Data collected 54 R02581 -- Oil Spills.indd 54 7/17/14 11:16 AM
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A repeatable survey technique is needed for more precise understanding of the population size and trends of Pacific walruses. There is no reliable estimate of the Chukchi Sea subpopulation of polar bears, although there have been efforts to develop an aerial survey to obtain a precise and reliable estimate that could be used for monitoring trends (Nielson et al., 2013)
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Some species, such as those that are ice dependent or ice associated, may have adverse population-level reactions to climate changes, while others adapted to subarctic conditions may benefit. Polar bears, ringed seals, and bearded seals, for example, were listed under the Endangered Species Act because of concerns about negative impacts from predicted future impacts to sea ice and snow (including loss of habitat and access to food sources)
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. In northeastern Russia, Wran gel Island is a vital denning area for Chukchi Sea polar bears, haulout for walruses, and nesting area for lesser snow geese.
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, which could be valuable for assessing environmental changes and possibly for evaluating impacts during or after an oil spill. It is important to understand other health factors currently impacting some marine mammals -- for example, numerous ringed seals and walruses were found sick or dead in northern and western Alaska in 2011.
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BOEM and NOAA are also co-sponsoring a study of how endangered whales utilize the Chukchi Sea. Another BOEM-sponsored initiative is investigating the physical properties and currents in the northeastern Chukchi shelf region and exchanges between the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas.25 The results of this study will be important for evaluating oil spill trajectories and could guide development and validation of oil spill trajectory models.
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Wind forcing, the main driver of surface ocean currents and sea ice motion, and weather patterns in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas are being monitored, analyzed, and modeled numerically to evaluate and predict oil spill trajectories and assess potential environmental impacts. Local weather systems and winds are complicated in the Beaufort Sea region because of temperature differences between the land and ocean and the steep terrain changes associated with the Brooks Range to the south.
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Critical types of benchmark data for oil spill response in the Arctic include: • Operational near-real-time forecasts and updates of parameters such as winds, waves, ocean currents, ice cover, ice floe size distribution and drift, thickness, as well as derivative products to deliver high-resolution datasets in support of response actions in all weather and seasons; • Real-time meteorologica-oceangraphic data from observational platforms (e.g., drilling and production rigs, high-frequency radar, gliders, drifting buoys) to support real-time forecasting and environmental knowledge; • Identification and monitoring of areas of high biological diversity; • Identification of rates of change for key species; • Spatial and temporal distributions and abundances for fish, birds, and marine mammals; • Subsistence and cultural use of living marine resources; • Sensitivity of key Arctic species to petroleum hydrocarbons; and • High-resolution coastal topography and shelf bathymetry.
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Conclusion: High-quality nautical charting is essential for marine traffic purposes and oil spill response in the Arctic. However, shoreline topographic and hydrographic data are mostly obsolete, with limited tide, current, and water level data and very little ability to get accurate positioning and elevation.
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Recommendation: A real-time Arctic oceanographic-ice-meteorological forecasting system is needed to account for variations in sea ice coverage and thickness and should include patterns of ice movement, ice type, sea state, ocean stratification and circulation, storm surge, and improved resolution in areas of potential risk. Such a system requires robust, sustainable, and effective acquisition of relevant observational data.
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