Critical Role of Animal Science Research in Food Security and Sustainability (2015) / Chapter Skim
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3 Animal Agriculture Research Needs: U.S. Perspective
3 Animal Agriculture Research Needs: U.S. Perspective
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This chapter covers key issues for animal sciences research considerations for the United States. It provides a summary of reports by various policy and other stakeholder groups engaged in animal science research across various disciplines, and then discusses topics on the importance of the research contributions of animal sciences research to 95
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animal agriculture, including social concerns, increasing regulations, the environment, and a decreasing agricultural land base to produce not only the same amount of food as presently produced but to also meet the increasing demand for global animal protein by the year 2050. In keeping with its charge, the committee has focused its efforts on animal agricultural research; however, the broader context of overall agricultural R&D, for which there is more information available, provides additional reason for concern.
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. Animal protein available from eggs and dairy products has fallen on a per capita basis, even though the supply of eggs has remained relatively constant since the 1960s and the dairy supply has more than doubled since the 1920s (Figures 3-2 and 3-3)
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98 CRITICAL ROLE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE RESEARCH Number of Eggs Available 350 70,000 300 60,000 250 50,000 Total Supply Per Capita 200 40,000 150 30,000 Per Capita 100 20,000 Total Supply 50 10,000 0 0 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 Year FIGURE 3-2 Number of eggs available from 1966 to 2012.
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In brief, these strategies focus on research related to genomics, new varieties and germplasms, sustainability of animal production and the environment, animal disease control, climate impacts, reduction of foodborne contaminants, effective management strategies, and development of animal sciences workforces. The USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS)
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initiative to identify research, extension, and education priorities that will enable animal sciences to meet the key future animal agricultural challenges. Three major themes (Food Security, One Health, and Stewardship)
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Improve production efficiency and well-being; 5. Improve nutrition and develop novel feeds; 6.
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As evidenced by the content of these reports, various stakeholders in the United States -- from government agencies to industries to academics to producers -- recognize the importance of animal sciences research as the means to ensure a safe, high-quality, plentiful, and affordable food supply to meet the future protein demand in the United States and the world. Common themes arise across these multiple reports, including climate change concerns; continued development and use of emerging technologies to improve animal production efficiency, animal health, and feed and food safety and quality; animal waste management; development of underutilized resources; and ensuring appropriate infrastructure and collaborations to achieve sufficient animal production in the future.
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funding will favorably impact animal production enterprises in developing countries. With the lack of increase in public funding of animal science research, private/industry support has increased.
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USDA should maintain and enhance the current link to the livestock, poultry, and aquaculture industries in the United States with the aim of building better public–private partnerships in funding research in animal science. RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUSTAINABILITY 3-2 Productivity and Production Efficiency Productivity is a key element in achieving food security, and production efficiency relates to sustainability through its effects on economics and environmental impacts.
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. The mechanization of animal agricultural production systems, such as animal waste materials disposal, milking machines, milking parlors, milking robotics, poultry houses with automatic feeding, watering, and egg collection, and feed storage systems was advanced through research activities that combined both engineering and biological disciplines.
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TABLE 3-1 Improvements in Food Animal Productivity over the Past 40 to 50 Years Performance Increase Species Trait 1960s 2005 (%) Pig Pigs weaned per 14 21 50 sow/year Proportion of lean meat 0.40 0.55 37 Feed conversion ratio 3.0 2.2 27 (FCR)
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Subtherapeutic antibiotics for growth promotion, disease prevention, and overall animal health improvement have been used since the 1950s. Typically, an increase in feed efficiency and productivity was observed, especially in nursery pigs.
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Feed efficiency, feed composition, and manure management were the three primary determinants of the environmental impact of egg production. Per kilogram of eggs produced, the environmental footprint for 2010 was 65 percent lower in acidifying emissions, 71 percent lower in eutrophying emissions, 71 percent lower in GHG emissions, and 31 percent lower in cumulative energy demand compared to 1960 (Pelletier et al., 2014)
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The concern for the aquaculture enterprise adversely affecting the environment led to a substantial amount of research transitioning to developing culture strategies based on sustainability concepts complemented by awareness of policies, existing infrastructure, and current and anticipated construct of markets. In comparison to its terrestrial animal production counterparts, the aquaculture enterprise is comparatively young.
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noted that approximately 30 percent of protein, fat, and energy contained in feed is retained in the edible part of salmon, whereas 18, 13, and 2 percent is retained in the edible part of chicken, pigs, and sheep, respectively. Therefore, among animal agricultural species, fish, crustaceans, and other aquaculture products are the most sustainable end product relative to efficiencies of production and yield (i.e., protein for consumption per harvested animal)
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Future research must focus on species-specific designs and related costs that will reduce energy demands. Despite carnivorous species commanding a higher value in the marketplace, their successful RAS culture will also depend on the replacement of high-protein fish meal and fish oil–containing feeds with more sustainable and economically practical feeds.
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. Aquaculture production has the potential to increase significantly through the development and acceptance of biotechnological advances that will permit sustainable intensification via offshore cage culture.
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During the past 15 years, the ratio of the weight of fish meal and fish oil in feed to the weight of fish produced has decreased from 3-4.1:1 to 1.5:1, demonstrating proportionately lower levels of or no fish meal in feeds produced for aquaculture (Tacon et al., 2011) , but more research to find effective and efficient substitutes is needed to attain sustainable intensification.
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production systems that have led to increased productivity, including aspects that negatively affect animal welfare and environmental sustainability. Although productivity gains have occurred in the past several decades because of publicly funded animal science research, the current stagnation in funding may result in a slowing of productivity gains right at a time when the increase in global demand for animal protein is accelerating.
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animal science research enterprise is needed to meet future animal protein demands sustainably. Recommendation 3-2 Regarding productivity and production efficiency, the committee finds that increasing production efficiency while reducing the environmental footprint and cost per unit of animal protein product is essential to achieving a sustainable, affordable, and secure animal protein supply.
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The relevant U.S. government agencies should build a professional interagency network with the aim of maintaining sustainable animal production systems.
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. Epigenetics is a newer field in animal science investigating the changes in gene expression, not from alterations of DNA sequence, but rather changes in chromatin structure (Funston and Summers, 2013)
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The tremendous loss of farm animal diversity on a commercial level in the United States needs to be reversed. Microbial genomics is an area that has the potential to transform the breeding industry because adjustments of the microflora could reduce environmental impacts and improve sustainability.
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in the following quote: The reduction in number of academic animal breeding programs around the world, and particularly in North America, has resulted in a deficit of human talent and resources ready to take on these challenges. Not only are quantitative geneticists lacking, those few who are being produced in the remaining programs are entering a highly competitive job market where few are remaining in academia, with many of the trained animal breeding scientists being pulled into the plant and biomedical arenas.
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. Genomic breeding strategies and transgenic approaches for making farm animals more feed efficient will be needed (Niemann et al., 2011)
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This technology has been available for over two decades and has numerous applications in food animal production including the potential to improve productivity, carcass composition, growth rate, milk production, disease resistance, enhanced fertility, and production of animals with reduced environmental impact (Table 3-2; Hernandez Gifford and Gifford, 2013)
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. TABLE 3-2 Examples of Successful Transgenic Food Animals for Agricultural Production Year Transgenic Trait Gene Species 1999 Increased growth rate, less body Growth hormone (GH)
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. Early pregnancy translates into higher production and greater economic efficiency and sustainability of food animal production enterprises.
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Many advances in understanding animal nutrition have been the result of the public funding of animal science research. The committee refers the reader to the following published reviews on nutritional
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of various food animal species are established from the results of animal nutrition research. The National Research Council (NRC)
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, improve the quality and nutritional value of animal products for the consumer (e.g., dietary vitamin E to extend meat shelf-life, enhanced omega-3 fatty acids in eggs, fresh grass to increase conjugated linoleic acid in dairy products) , and improve animal health (e.g., copper and gut health, selenium and vitamin E for improved oxidative stability)
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. A better understanding of these relationships could create innovative advances in livestock production to the benefit of the environment, human and animal health, and production efficiency.
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. All of these advancements have led to improved productivity and production efficiency with less environmental waste in the form of nitrogen, phosphorus, and GHG emissions per unit of output; however, not all agricultural systems take advantage of these nutritional advancements that contribute to environmental sustainability.
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Research devoted to an understanding of amino acid, energy, fiber, mineral, and vitamin nutrition has led to technological innovations such as production of individual amino acids to help provide a diet that more closely resembles the animal's requirements, resulting in improved efficiency, animal health, and environmental gains, as well as lower costs; however, much more can be realized with additional knowledge gained from research. Research should continue to develop a better understanding of nutrient metabolism and utilization in the animal and the effects of those nutrients on gene expression.
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Many of these mathematical models with sensitivity analyses helped animal science researchers to focus on areas where knowledge gaps needed to be filled and to have major impacts on the biological system as a whole. Other animal models were developed to accurately predict nutrient requirements of animals in different stages of development, including maintenance, growth, lactation, and reproduction.
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Although the committee believes that comprehensive system models that include soil, crop, animal, land use, for example, would be useful in studying such environmental tradeoffs, the scope of the work focused on animal science research and thus animal models is specifically highlighted in this section. McNamara and Shields (2013)
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and building and strengthening connections between modelers and experimental animal scientists. 3-6 Feed Technology and Processing Feed technology and processing are important in enhancing productive efficiency and production in food animals.
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. Research Priorities Feed technology and processing is important to improving feed acceptability to the animal, feed efficiency, and animal health, and reducing feed wastage.
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The insect meal would serve as a good source of amino acids and fatty acids that characterize fish meal and fish oil. For rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, soldier fly prepupae served as an effective substitute for 25 percent of fish meal and 38 percent of fish oil ingredients.
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derived from the production of biofuels and byproducts from the processing of terrestrial animals also hold potential as alternative feedstuffs. Typically, the industry that is generating the new product funds the animal science research needed to commercialize the product.
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In the U.S. National Organic Program for animal production, use of most of these additives and growth promotants is not allowed.
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. The development through research, adoption, and application of these feed additives, growth promotants, and milk production enhancers has contributed to food security and sustainability in several ways: (1)
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3-7 Animal Health It is important from a food security and food safety standpoint that food animals are healthy, animal diseases are not transmitted to humans, and animal products are safe and affordable for human consumption.
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Since the creation of the World Trade Organization, animal health issues have been a major hurdle for trading animal protein globally, and animal health issues are becoming a trade component for the United States and other countries. USDA ARS and NIFA have given top priority based on budget allocation to addressing animal health issues in the United States.
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140 CRITICAL ROLE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE RESEARCH proactive investigations of the physiological relationships between host and pathogen. To meet these challenges, a specific animal model needs to be developed whereby an understanding of this basic physiology of host and pathogen can be achieved.
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Recommendation 3-7 The subtherapeutic use of medically important antibiotics in animal production is being phased out and may be eliminated in the United States. This potential elimination of subtherapeutic use of medically important antibiotics presents a major challenge.
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Animal diseases can result in market and trade interruptions, thus impacting food security, and may pose a significant human health threat. Advancements in animal health such as through vaccines and other preventive measures have resulted in less human labor, so that producers can handle a greater number of animals at improved efficiencies, increasing output per animal as well as per farm.
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. Note, however, that ethology is an important discipline in the animal sciences in its own right, independent of its importance to animal welfare.
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There is also a need for additional research on animal welfare that incorporates consideration of public values and attitudes and addresses public concerns about topics such as animal feelings and the ability of animals to perform their natural behaviors. While some animal welfare research will be commodity specific, there are also critical overarching research areas (FASS, 2012; Walker et al., 2014)
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These research priorities should be elaborated on to encompass the areas of emphasis identified by the OIE (World Organization for Animal Health) as part of the general principles for animal welfare (Box 2-3)
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This research should be focused on current and emerging housing systems and management and production practices for food animals in the United States. The Foundation for Food and Agricultural Research, USDA AFRI, and USDA ARS should carry out an animal welfare research prioritization process that incorporates relevant stakeholders and focuses on identifying key commodity-specific, system-specific and basic research needs, as well as mechanisms for building capacity for this area of research.
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. As an importer of animal protein products, the United States must be involved in the development of international standards, guidelines, and recommendations that protect the health of farmed animals and consumers.
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. Inadvertent presence of feed contaminants can cause significant animal health risks, which may or may not translate to human health risks.
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Hence, reducing mycotoxin levels in animal feed is critical for sustainable food animal industries to ensure future food security. TABLE 3-4 Adverse Animal Health Effects Associated with Three Classes of Mycotoxins Mycotoxin Fungi That Crops Animal Health Effects Produce Toxins Contaminated by Toxins Aflatoxins Aspergillus Corn, peanuts, Liver tumors flavus, A
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agencies in the identification of feed and feedstuff contaminants should continue so that rigorous policies of regulation can continue to be updated to protect the health of farmed species and consumers and provide information to feed manufacturers through outreach programs. 3-10 Food Safety and Quality 3-10.1 Food Technology Supplying affordable, safe, and desirable animal products as a source of nutrients to the human diet is important.
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A major goal of food safety is to determine a way to measure the impact of interventions at different phases of the production chain. Research is needed to examine individual interventions and those used in combination, and the economic considerations of such interventions.
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With the growing popularity of "organic" and "natural" food products and the number of recalls of products from these production systems, an increased emphasis on food safety is required, especially in microbial pathogen control. Research is needed to determine better and faster pathogen detection methods for laboratory and field application (Sofos, 2009)
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. In the dairy industry, fluid milk processing has made technological advancements in extending the shelf life of milk by highheat treatment, microfiltration, and aseptic packaging (Goff and Griffiths, 2006)
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• Research should be conducted to understand the biological and physical mechanisms relevant to improving nutritional, functional, and organoleptic qualities of animal products. 3-10.2 Food Losses and Food Waste Food is lost or wasted throughout the food chain (Figure 3-4)
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food waste represents a significant amount of money and resources; and (3) there are negative externalities (i.e., GHG emissions from cattle production, air pollution and soil erosion, and disposal of uneaten food)
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. One major research focus for food loss in animal products is shelf life.
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Dejmek (2013) provides a historical overview of milk shelf life including heat treatment, pasteurization, ohmic heating, and microwave and ultrahigh-temperature (UHT)
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. New products and concepts to address the microbial load and contamination, including edible antimicrobial films being placed on the surface of meats to extend shelf life, are being explored (Morsy et al., 2014)
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Animal agricultural productivity is also impacted by environmental change and climate variability. Incorporating sustainability into animal agriculture is challenging because it requires balancing increased global demand for animal products, mitigating environmental impacts, and addressing social concerns about animal welfare, food safety, and labor issues while also keeping food production economical for producers and consumers.
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are managed and lost to the environment and about human and animal health and welfare (Fraser et al., 2001; Donham et al., 2007)
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. Water for animal feedstuff production contributes to 98 percent of the water footprint of animal products (Hoekstra, 2012)
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162 CRITICAL ROLE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE RESEARCH FIGURE 3-5 Distribution of 21.9 million dairy cows and heifers in 1939 (Top) and distribution of 9.3 million dairy cows in 2012 (Bottom)
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Climate change will likely affect feed-grain production, availability, and price; pasture and forage crop production and quality; animal health, growth, and reproduction; and disease and pest distributions (Walthall et al., 2012)
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. Increased variability in temperatures and precipitation will likely lead to decreased feed quality and increased environmental and nutritional stress for some animal agricultural species (Craine et al., 2010; Nardone et al., 2010; Wheeler and Reynolds, 2013)
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The impacts of climate change and variability outlined above will have negative consequences for the efficiency of animal production and, thus, the environmental impact per unit of production. Consequently, adaptation to climate change and the mitigation of GHG emissions (and other environmental emissions)
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Other Research Priorities The committee supports previous recommendations by others that animal science research should increase the understanding of the impacts of climate change and variability on animal health and disease, animal productivity and welfare, and crop yields, quality, and availability. One research priority in this area includes: • Research should develop viable climate change adaptation strategies for animal agriculture systems, including the development of information technologies to enhance animal agriculturalist decision making at the farm and operation levels.
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. Although there is current and past research quantifying and investigating nitrous oxide emissions mitigation strategies, further collaborative efforts across crop and soil science, engineering and animal science disciplines will be needed to make significant improvements in emissions reductions.
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Additionally, increased consideration should be given to the costeffectiveness of enteric methane mitigation strategies and the potential tradeoffs and unintended consequences of mitigating enteric methane emissions on other aspects of animal agricultural sustainability. Methane from manure is typically emitted from liquid or slurry manure storage systems, with very little methane produced once manure is applied to land (Montes et al., 2013)
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Food waste at the retail, consumer, and food service portions of the animal agricultural supply chain are estimated to range from 16 percent of edible food for red meat, poultry, fish, and seafood to 32 percent of edible food for dairy products (Kantor et al., 1997)
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3-11.4 Air Quality and Nuisance Issues The concentration of animal production has shifted how animal manure and litter are managed. While animals in extensive systems will deposit their urine and feces while grazing or foraging, manure or litter in confinement systems must be collected and usually stored in some way.
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. Mitigation strategies that reduce emissions from fermented feed also have the potential to reduce feed losses, which is beneficial to animal agricultural producers (Place and Mitloehner, 2014)
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In response, animal science and affiliated departments (e.g., crop and soil sciences) at land-grant universities have conducted research to address manure nutrient management and to reduce nutrient excretion from animal operations to the environment.
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The efficiency of calorie production per hectare has been analyzed and animal production has been shown to be less efficient than crop production, with beef and other ruminant production being the least efficient (Cassidy et al., 2013; Eshel et al., 2014)
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. The proper functional unit of any one environmental analysis of animal production systems will depend on the goals of the analysis and should take into account that there are often multiple outputs of value from animal production systems (e.g., meat, milk, leather, and manure, which can have fertilizer value, are all outputs from dairy production)
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Life-cycle assessment allows for evaluation of the impacts from the full production chain of a given animal production system, which can better account for the potential unintended consequences of changing one aspect of the production chain on the other phases of production. Additionally, consequence-related LCA techniques could be used to
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• Researchers in animal science and related disciplines should work collaboratively with LCA researchers to conduct empirical research that improves the methodologies and reduces the uncertainties of LCA. Research should provide empirical data to quantify emissions,
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, it is becoming increasingly important to employ transdisciplinary approaches that include both the natural and social sciences. One obvious area where social science and animal science research need to be better aligned is with respect to the economic consequences of research applications.
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Comparative advantage affects animal agriculture because unless a country has a comparative advantage in the production of food animals, the country will tend to import animal products rather than produce them. 2 Thus, countries with plentiful land, which has few alternative uses, will have an advantage in extensive food animal production.
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to assess public attitudes toward agriculturally related topics such as agricultural biotechnology, agricultural trade policy, food safety and security, and rural development. The European Union also recently funded a large-scale project to assess consumer and farmer attitudes to animal welfare throughout Europe with an associated animal sciences research program on this topic (Blokhuis et al., 2013)
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Few animal science departments in the United States have social sciences or bioethics faculty in their departments who can carry out this kind of research. Socioeconomic and animal science research should be integrated so that researchers, administrators, and decision makers can be guided and informed in conducting and funding effective, efficient, and productive research and technology transfer.
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Fraser (2001) has characterized what he refers to as the "New Perception" of animal agriculture in the growing popular literature -- that it is detrimental to animal welfare, mainly controlled by large corporations, motivated by profit, causes increased world hunger, produces unhealthy food, and is harmful to the environment.
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For example, schools of public health have departments with research expertise in understanding the role of communication in behavior, as well as departments focused on environmental health and public policy, which also overlap with issues of concern to animal agriculture research. Recommendation 3-13 The committee recognizes a broad communication gap related to animal agriculture research and objectives between the animal science community and the consumer.
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in the Department of Animal Science at Cornell University has been developed to conduct applied research, extension, and education. The program combines animal science, manure management, and crop and soil science disciplines to advance holistic nutrient management of dairy farms in New York State.
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Although this should not eliminate the ability to collaborate with animal scientists, the separation of animal waste specialists from departments of animal science can sometimes create an obstacle to integrated, collaborative research. This "silo effect" of separating disciplines, along with often limited funding support, can stifle the creation of transdisciplinary environmental management or sustainability programs for animal agricultural production that contain research, extension, and education elements.
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. Land-grant universities are uniquely qualified to conduct integrated research, as they have done for 100 years, particularly field-to-fork research that encompasses all phases of animal production to the consumer; however, the decline in public funding (both state and federal)
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and USDA ARS to conduct a multiyear commercial-scale study of three housing alternatives for egg laying hens in the United States The Coalition researchers worked to better understand the impact of these laying-hen housing systems on a sustainable supply of eggs by conducting integrated multidisciplinary research on the environmental, worker health and safety, hen health and welfare, economic, and food safety and quality aspects of those systems. In conjunction, the Center for Food Integrity (http://www.foodintegrity.org/)
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. Although the adoption of technologies such as rbST have economic and environmental sustainability benefits due to improving the efficiency of resource conversion into dairy products, the social sustainability implications of technologies used in animal production are less clear.
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The tradeoffs surrounding the social, environmental, and economic facets of sustainability have gone largely ignored and unquantified in the animal sciences, pointing to a need for further collaboration, training, and research in the future. Beyond biotechnology, improved animal husbandry practices and housing systems that can affect animal longevity, fertility, and productivity can also affect environmental impacts per unit of output.
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Research priorities for this area include: • A coordinated approach to engage with the public, policy makers, animal agriculturalists, and animal scientists is required to better understand, respond to, and communicate the tradeoffs of biotechnological solutions across the economic, social, and environmental components of sustainability. • To tackle the issues of sustainability in animal agriculture, public funding should be guided by a twofold objective for support -- projects that take a transdisciplinary approach and integrate research with extension and/or education efforts, and projects that continue to increase fundamental knowledge within the disciplines of animal science.
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Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(2)
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Journal of Animal Science 86(12)
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beef production. Journal of Animal Science 90(10)
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Journal of Animal Science 89(8)
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Accessed August 18, 2014. EFSA (European Food Safety Authority)
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Accessed August 18, 2014. FASS (Federation of Animal Science Societies)
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Journal of Animal Science 79(3)
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Journal of Animal Science 87(2)
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2013. Role of reproductive biotechnologies in enhancing food security and sustainability.
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Italian Journal of Animal Science 4(Suppl.
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A review of enteric methane mitigation options. Journal of Animal Science 91(11)
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: Nutritional challenge with totally plant-based diets. Journal of Animal Science.
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2013. Life-cycle assessment of the beef cattle production system for the northern Great Plains, USA.
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Journal of Animal Science 92(2)
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A review of manure management mitigation options. Journal of Animal Science 91(11)
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Journal of Animal Science 89(12)
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Journal of Animal Science 87(1)
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Journal of Animal Science 87(1)
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2012. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education: Grants and Education to Advance Innovations in Sustainable Agriculture.
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Journal of Animal Science 87(7)
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2001. Food safety and irradiation: Protecting the public from foodborne infections.
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2013. Animal welfare: An integral component of sustainability.
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Journal of Animal Science 83(13 Suppl.)
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2014. Animal Welfare Science: Recent publication trend and future research priorities.
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2014. Climate Action Plan: Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions.
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