Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8 A Unifying Foundation (2015) / Chapter Skim
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6 Educational Practices
6 Educational Practices
Pages 239-324
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From page 239... ...
The sections that follow then cover other important educational practices, including using technology effectively, supporting the early learning of dual language learners, supporting children with and at risk for disabilities, working with families, and conducting child assessments. CROSS-CUTTING PRINCIPLES FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES This section reviews some of the principles for instructional practices that are generally applicable provided that they are developed and applied in specific ways for different developmental domains and learning needs, including general learning competencies, socioemotional development, cognitive development, and specific subject-matter content (as illustrated in the specific sections that follow)
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These tools help educators by presenting material in sequences aligned with learning trajectories, providing the teacher with instructional activities and questions to ask children, informing the teacher of common misconceptions that children may hold or mistakes commonly made and how to address them, and providing updated information as research becomes available. Unfortunately, research-based curricula and tools are not equally available across age ranges and subjects.
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. Teaching Subject-Matter Content Through Learning Trajectories Although children are ready and eager to learn, many early childhood educators are not prepared to engage children in rich subject-matter experiences that lay the groundwork for success later in school and in the workplace (Brenneman et al., 2009b; Clements and Sarama, 2009; NRC, 2001b, 2007; Sarama and Clements, 2009)
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Learning trajectories can help educators of young children understand and be responsive to children's developmental processes and constraints and their potential for thinking about and understanding content, and apply that understanding in creating more effective environments, instructional activities, and conversations. The learning trajectories construct organizes, connects, and operationalizes the above three types of knowledge -- especially content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge -- for teaching specific subject-matter content.
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To foster com prehensive, high-quality early learning, educators need to understand and employ all three components of learning trajectories: the subject matter content itself, the developmental progression of how children's thinking and understanding grows as they learn particular content, and the instructional tasks and strategies that promote learning along that progression. Teaching Subject-Matter Content: Implications for Professional Learning Professional learning needs to include all three categories of knowl edge for teaching subject-matter content: content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge.
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Some of these "dichotomies" include "direct" versus "inquiry" instruction, play-based versus academic instruction, development of content knowledge versus socioemotional learning, and mainstreaming versus special instruction. Even the structure of examining instructional strategies in a dichotomous frame may restrict what can be learned about when, how, and how much to use each.
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. This same dichotomy has been investigated with respect to instructional practices for reading (Connor et al., 2009)
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alongside phonemic awareness and letter knowledge. As another example, a 2001 study compared two methods for teaching first-grade math: one focused on ensuring that students mastered step-bystep procedures for solving a math problem, while the other emphasized conceptual understanding and flexible application of multiple strategies and procedures.
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. Indeed, instruction and curricula that emphasize conceptual understanding simultaneously with procedural skills and flexible application of multiple strategies lead not only to equivalent skills but also to more fluent, flexible use of those skills, as well as to superior conceptual understanding, compared with approaches that initially emphasize mastery of procedures (Fuson and Kwon, 1992; NMP, 2008)
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. Also, children who engaged in mathematics-related storybook reading, discussed these books, and played with related mathematics materials had a better disposition toward and learning of mathematics than a control group (Hong, 1996; van den Heuvel-Panhuizen and Elia, 2012)
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Conclusion About Interdisciplinary Instructional Approaches Teaching and learning need to be connected across developmental do mains and subject areas. Such connections across standards, curricula, and teaching are best made through approaches that are not just "in tegrated" (which often means making connections that are superficial and do not serve learning goals)
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Ensuring Follow-Through and Continuity Given how young children develop, it is unrealistic to expect the effects of early interventions to last indefinitely, without continual, progressive support in later schooling of children's nascent learning trajectories (Brooks-Gunn, 2003; O'Connor et al., 2013, 2014)
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Proficient learning in each domain of development and early learning is facilitated when standards, curricula, assessments, and teaching prac tices are coherent, aligned with each other and across ages and grade levels, based on rigorous research and evaluation, and implemented with fidelity. GENERAL EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES FOR WORKING WITH INFANTS AND TODDLERS There are some special considerations worth emphasizing for working with infants and toddlers in childcare settings to aid in promoting their optimal development and early learning.
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Educators can support the growth of these cognitive abilities through their instructional practices in the learning environment. Using an abundance of child-directed language during social interaction, playing sorting and counting games (e.g., while stacking blocks)
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For this reason, it is essential that educators reflect on and explore their own cultural backgrounds in order to understand and be sensitive to culture. LANGUAGE AND LITERACY The active ingredient of supporting language development in care and education settings relates to educators' use of high-quality language interactions (such as extending what a child says and using varied and complex language)
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. Researchers who have developed tiered intervention approaches for children whose reading trajectory suggests risk for reading disabilities and delays have in the last few years incorporated vocabulary and listening comprehension activities along with early reading skills (Case et al., 2014; O'Connor et al., 2013, 2014; Otaiba et al., 2014)
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Ongoing exposure to elaborate language, as well as simple requests and questions that draw out children's first words and phrases, all support language development. There fore, educators of infants and toddlers create high-quality language environments when they intentionally and thoughtfully use their own talk -- through explanations, questioning, and descriptions -- to build up the knowledge of those in their care.
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This is another chance to be emotionally attuned and strengthen bonds with young children. As described in Chapter 4, interactive book reading between children and their caregivers is one of the best-documented methods for improving the vocabularies of children.
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Primary grade educators are strong in certain aspects of effective instruction, such as word-reading skills, but there are also important shortcomings in instructional practices related to language and literacy. In particular, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and conceptual and content knowledge are not emphasized, particularly in the use of informational texts that would enhance early reading skills.
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plan groupings that strategically support language development (e.g., in heterogeneous groupings, children with stronger language skills around a particu lar topic can provide a language model for peers with more limited language skills)
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compared means of improving the oral language of kindergarten students through storybook read-alouds, and found that teachers who engaged their students in conversations that used new words in contexts outside the storybook generated greater vocabulary gains for both dual language learners and native English speakers. Other preschool and kindergarten studies have similarly shown that the interactive storybook routines and features of educators' talk that support children's use of language during book discussions support vocabulary growth of dual language learners and other children with poorly developed vocabulary in English (Coyne et al., 2007; Loftus et al., 2010; Silverman, 2007)
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make greater gains during language interven tions regardless of initial vocabulary knowledge. • ducators need to be trained to impart more than simple literacy E skills, especially listening and reading comprehension, vocabulary, and conceptual and subject-matter content knowledge (e.g., using informational texts)
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. Even when preschool settings adopt the most commonly used, ostensibly "complete," prekindergarten curricula this often engenders no increase in mathematics instruction (Aydogan et al., 2005; Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research Consortium, 2008)
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Such curricula often include a comprehensive set of cognitive concepts and processes; are based on developmentally sequenced instructional activities; and help educators assess and remediate based on those developmental progressions (Clements et al., 2011, 2013; Griffin et al., 1994; Sarama et al., 2012)
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The middle column sketches hypothesized cognitive components for each level of the developmental progression. The column on the right shows instructional tasks matched to each of the levels of thinking in the developmental progression and designed to help children learn the skills and ideas needed to achieve that level.
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. Reciter Verbally counts The verbal list is differentiated Count and Move with separate words, into distinct number words Have all children count not necessarily in the associated with the term from 1 to 10 or an correct order after five.
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EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES 265 TABLE 6-1 Continued Developmental Progression Instructional Tasks Level Names and Descriptions Cognitive Components Corresponder Keeps The counting procedure is Kitchen Counter one-to-one further constrained in producing Students click on correspondence a correspondence, both in objects on a screen between counting the development of the initial one at a time while the words and objects (one bootstrap process (Downs et numbers from 1 to 10 word for each object) , al., 2009; Gelman and Gallistel, are counted aloud.
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The Importance of Follow-Through for Mathematics As noted earlier, the importance of following through on early interventions with continued and cumulative learning support into elementary school and beyond applies across developmental domains and subject areas. For mathematics, research shows that kindergarten curricula and educators fail to build most children's mathematical competencies (Claessens et al., 2014; Engel et al., 2013)
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scale-up model was designed to teach early mathematics for understanding, emphasizing learning trajectories and technological tools. Schools were randomly assigned to two interventions or control.
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They need to know how to integrate these three com ponents into effective research-based learning trajectories for every topic in mathematics and to use them to conduct effective formative assessment. • ducators need to be able to move beyond false instructional di E chotomies and develop sound mathematical concepts, fluent skills, and flexible and adaptive problem-solving abilities in their students.
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. Primary grade educators also devote limited attention to science because of a lack of time, materials, and space, as well as their perceived lack of content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and self-confidence and comfort in the subject (Appleton and Kindt, 1999, 2002; Greenfield et al., 2009; Saçkes et al., 2011)
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. As with mathematics, research has identified learning trajectories for key content areas in science, such as physics and biology, and has provided evidence for the effectiveness of following these pathways (Gelman and Brenneman, 2004)
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. Teaching Science: Implications for Professional Learning Content and methods courses in higher education, as well as other professional learning activities, need to enhance the competencies of edu cators of children from birth through age 8 in all aspects of science learning trajectories: science goals and content, developmental progressions for a variety of science topics, and instructional tasks and strategies.
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. Some curricular resources and other intervention appproaches provide effective approaches for fostering the socioemotional development and learning of children in early childhood and early elementary settings and enhancing supportive relationships (CASEL, 2012; Durlak, 2015; Pianta et al., 2007; Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research Consortium, 2008)
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For educators to implement interventions with fidelity, program-wide implementation supports, including professional learning activities, are needed. Although there is a substantial body of literature on school-wide approaches to implementing tiered behavior support models in elementary, middle, and secondary schools, the literature on implementation of these models in early childhood settings is in its infancy (Fox and Hemmeter, 2009; Frey, 2009; Stormont et al., 2005)
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. Thus, beyond incorporating developmental knowledge in this area into educator preparation, it is important to also do so across sectors and settings, for professionals in pediatric practice, the child welfare system, early intervention, special education, childcare and after-school care, and programs for children with special needs.
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Fostering Social and Emotional Development: Implications for Professional Learning • arly care and education professionals need training to foster socio E emotional development and create supportive learning environments for all children. • rofessionals in education, health, and social services need training P to recognize when children need specialized support for their socio emotional development, to provide that support directly and through linkages to specialized services, and to connect to multigeneration intervention approaches that take into account the mental health and well-being of the adults in children's lives instead of viewing children in isolation.
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Research has shown evidence of a "video deficit," a phenomenon whereby children learn less readily from a prerecorded video than from a person talking with them face-to-face, even when the video shows a person speaking as if he/she is face-to-face with the audience (Anderson and Pempek, 2005)
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Studies using randomized controlled trials yielded evidence showing that children learned new vocabulary words and skills such as problem solving and self-regulation after watching videos with an intentional pedagogical approach or curriculum (Singer and Singer, 1998)
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. Technology-assisted instruction also can help build prereading and reading skills (e.g., Chambers, 2008; Pelletier, 2006)
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can lead to improvements in phonological awareness, vocabulary knowledge, and word-reading skills (Korat, 2010)
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For the latter end of the birth through age 8 spectrum -- children in grades K-3 -- educators regularly face this question even though research on children's development of skills in and knowledge of technology remains sparse. A handful of states have standards for digital literacy or technology use starting in kindergarten, and a majority of states' literacy standards for elementary schools include a reference to children's ability to use online ma
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. At one count, nearly all 50 states had adopted or used part of the ISTE student standards.3 Neither the ISTE student standards nor the teacher standards are differentiated by grade level, but several states cite them as the base for their K-2 or K-3 technology standards.4 The Council for Accreditation of Educator Preparation also lists standards for teachers; it calls for teacher 2 For example, the English Language Arts standards in the Common Core State Standards, which have been adopted in 44 states, set expectations for elementary school-age children to, "with guidance and support from adults, explore a variety of digital tools to produce and publish writing, including in collaboration with peers" (CCSSO and NGA, 2010)
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The statement says that technology and digital media can be "effective tools in early childhood education when used intentionally and appropriately, taking into consideration each child's age, developmental abilities, and social and cultural life context." It also calls for equitable access for all children; ongoing professional learning for teachers; and careful consideration of public health statements about the importance of avoiding violent content and limiting the use of passive screen media, such as videos, with 5 Six of 23 states' preschool standards surveyed by RAND did not make any mention of technology or computers (Daugherty et al., 2014, p.
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• For interactive touch screens, some programs integrated with a research-based curriculum have been associated with gains in math and reading skills among children in preschool and above. Using Technology Effectively to Foster Early Learning: Implications for Professional Learning Educators across professional roles and age ranges are expected to have competency in the use of technology for learning.
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Therefore, if young multilingual children appear to be struggling with phonological processing skills or with early alphabet knowl edge and word reading, they need targeted support. This is the case even when multilingual learners demonstrate underdeveloped English oral language proficiency.
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When screen ing and progress monitoring are used to identify underdeveloped language-based skills, and this information is then used to guide targeted language-building opportunities, instruction can capital ize on the rapid learning rates demonstrated by many multilingual learners and further accelerate their language development. • Assessments to gauge the quality of the learning environment -- Children's learning environments, and their daily opportunities to learn, are inextricably linked to their development.
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. Research on effective instructional practices with young multilingual learners highlights the promise and importance of several strategies and approaches that, together, prepare multilingual learners for the oral and written language they will encounter in the later grades: • A content-rich curriculum is designed around units of study to promote children's content knowledge and features a wide variety of reading materials (e.g., fiction, expository trade books, leveled books, magazines, audio)
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have summarized the research on instructional approaches that are beneficial for the mathematics learning of dual language learners: • bilingual instructional support and consistent access to the home language, including from paraprofessionals (instructional assis tants, parent volunteers, and older and more competent students) as well as use of cognates and other means of explaining math concepts with familiar language (Burchinal et al., 2012; Janzen, 2008; Turner and Celedón-Pattichis, 2011)
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Although this type of embedded instruction is a recommended practice in early childhood special education (Wolery, 2005) and early childhood education (NAEYC, 2009)
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. Historically, many have called for Direct Instruction in skills for students with math learning disabilities.
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. • Teach with learning trajectories and the use of formative assess ment, strategies that are especially helpful for students with special needs.
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. Finally, it may be most important, and have the most potential to prevent most learning difficulties, if high-quality early and elementary childhood mathematics education is provided for all students.
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Families are best poised to create a developmentally responsive home language environment when they are provided with regular, timely, and accessible updates on their child's progress and learning. Educators should not only provide these updates but also check in with families to ensure that they understand their children's literacy needs and how to help them and connect classroom activities to those being sent home for extended learning.
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Tailored Family Partnerships for Dual Language Learners Engaging in practices that promote partnerships with all families also particularly benefits multilingual children's development and learning. Because the cultural constructs for the families of multilingual children are in many cases different from the long-held cultural norms of U.S.
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. CONDUCTING CHILD ASSESSMENTS While early learning standards provide a roadmap for what young children should know and be able to do, early care and education professionals, including practitioners and leaders, also need the competencies to understand how individual and groups of children are learning and developing across the birth through age 8 continuum.
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Although this section focuses on the ability of care and education professionals to conduct child assessments, it is important to emphasize that such child assessment should not occur in isolation but rather as a component of a comprehensive assessment system, as described in Box 6-2 (NRC, 2008)
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coined the term assessment literacy to describe the ability of care and education professionals to understand how to
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Key to applying these principles using the assessment tools described in the next section is for professionals to be trained not only in how to administer assessments but also in how to interpret their results and apply that information to make changes in instructional practices and learning environments (Kauerz and Coffman, 2013; Tout et al., 2013)
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. Approaches and Tools for Child Assessments There exists an array of tools that, when selected wisely and according to the purpose for which they were intended, administered appropriately, and interpreted accurately, can inform practice and policy to help create successful learning environments and achieve strong outcomes for children.
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A child identified by a screening assessment as possibly having delayed language development, for example, needs further assessment to determine whether an actual delay exists; whether there are other, related delays (e.g., intellectual functioning, cognitive processing) ; and whether there are obvious causes (e.g., hearing loss)
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As described earlier, learning trajectories help define the content educators need to teach, understand it well themselves, and match instructional tasks to children's developmental progression. Formative assessment is an important part of the cycle of understanding the levels of thinking at which students are operating, identifying the next level of thinking they should learn, and matching this to educational activities to support that learning (Clements and Sarama, 2008; Clements et al., 2011, 2013)
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Early Childhood Re search Quarterly Early Childhood Research Quarterly 19(4)
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In Engaging young children in mathematics standards for early childhood mathematics education, edited by D
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American Educational Research Journal 47(1)
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Mathematics Education Research Journal 16(3)
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American Educational Research Journal 51(2)
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American Educational Research Journal 50(4)
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Paper presented at Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, April, Denver, CO. Dowsett, S
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Gender, ethnicity, and income as predic tors of experiences in pre-kindergarten classrooms. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 25(2)
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In Engaging young children in mathematics standards for early childhood mathematics education, edited by D
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A longitudinal study of immigrant Latino parents' aspirations and expectations, and their children's school performance. American Educational Research Journal 38(3)
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Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, New Orleans, LA.
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: Low-income mothers' views on preparing their children for school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 10:451-473.
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Educational Researcher 38:365-379. Johnston, K., and C
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Early Childhood Research Quarterly 28(2)
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2012. Early childhood mathematics education.
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Early Childhood Research Quarterly 10:277-296.
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Reading Research Quarterly 46(3)
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Early Childhood Research Quarterly 23:395-408. Pianta, R
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Child Development 82(1)
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2009. Early childhood mathematics education research: Learning trajectories for young children.
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In Engaging young children in mathematics standards for early childhood mathematics education, edited by D
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Early Childhood Research Quarterly 19(1)
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Early Childhood Research Quarterly 28(2)
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Child Development 72(5)
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