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From page 419...
... Index A Academic research bilateral science and technology agreements and, 199 commercialization of inventions, 74 in developing countries, 199-200 dissemination of results, 6, 9, 16 university views on IPR, 189, 190, 208213 Adaptation of IPR to new technologies biotechnology, 15, 19, 257-262, 266 case law processes, 270-271 computer programs, 250, 253-254, 255, 262-266 copyright law, 250, 264, 266 doctrinal issues in, 270-273, 281-282 evaluation of, 270-281 existing paradigms, 250-251 flexibility in, 190 fundamental issues, 249 implications of, 196-197, 281-283, 371 innovation rates and, 281 integrated information networks, 267-269 international dimension, 251-252, 260262 patent law, 250 policy analysis needs, 253, 255, 259 419 reform processes, 253 rights-enforcing process, 275-281 rights-granting process, 273-281 semiconductor chips, 250, 255 small business, 252 sui generis approaches, 251, 271-272, 371 Adler, Reid, 327 Aerospace industry, sales losses due to weak IPR, 132 Agency for International Development (U.S.) , 216 Alloys, 124, 125 n.11, 171 American Law Institute, 31 American Research and Development, 219 American Society for Composers, Authors, and Publishers, 278 American Superconductor, 217 Amgen, 320, 323, 325 AMP, Inc., 345 Andean Community countries, 84 Anell, Lars, 176 Animal rights, 260 Antidumping policy, 371 Antitrust policies, 16, 276, 343 Apple Computer Corp., 198, 289, 293 n.24 Arab Society tor the Protection of Industrial Property, 185
From page 420...
... firms, 120 patent law, 84, 126 pharmaceutical protection, 327 plant breeders' rights, 96 ranking of, 69, 122, 123 and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133 and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118 Armstrong, James E., III, 152, 155-158, 184, 186, 402-403 Armstrong, John A., 190, 192-207, 212, 213, 217, 241, 371, 373, 403-404 Artificial intelligence, 15, 181, 263 Associacion Nacional de la Industria de Programas pare Computadoras, 233, 234, 235 AT&T, 191, 213, 232, 236-240, 243, 340, 341, 345-347, 377-378 Audiotapes, copying, 10, 160-161 Australia, 91 Author's rights law, 235 B Index Bangladesh, 361 Barbaro, Daniele, 51 Barton, John, 251, 253, 256-283, 353, 404 Belarus, 73 Bell, Alexander Graham, 340 Bell Laboratories, 237, 340, 346, 348, 358, 377 Bement, Arden L., Jr., 388-390, 404-405 Biochips, 15, 204 Biotechnology adaptation of IPR to, 15, 19, 257-262, 266 agricultural, 259, 279 n.74 bacterium that produces ethanol from sugar, 77-78 border restrictions, 277 breadth of protection, 276-277 capital raised through public offerings, 322 case law, 254, 257 n.3, 258 nn.5 & 6, 260, 270, 271, 320, 323, 324 case study, 319-328 cloning of proteins, 257-258 commercialization role of IPRs, 254, 319 321, 325 defined, 257 delayed ripening of fruits, flowers, and vegetables, 102 n.13 delays in patents, 324 deposit of cultures, 9 in developing countries, 77-78, 95-96, 101-103 effects of protection, 103 exclusion under TRIPS, 177 experimental use exemption, 261 foreign investments in, 101 history of, 319-323 human, 259 international policy issues, 166, 258, 260-262, 270, 276-277, 323-324, 326-327 licensing of products, 102 litigation, 279 market value of stocks, 320, 322 oil-digesting organism, 320 patents, 6, 9, 92, 96, 102, 147, 163, 171, 194-195, 244, 254, 270, 271, 274-275, 278, 279, 281, 319-320, 323, 351 pharmaceuticals, 260, 275, 321, 324-325, 327 piracy of, 77 plant breeders' rights, 10, 95-96 policy analysis needs, 259 process claims, 323 recombinant DNA technique, 6 relevant forms of intellectual property, 9 role of small firms in, 252, 326, 328 sales, 321 scope of claims, 324 solutions to IPR issues, 259-262 special issues, 257-259 sui generis protection, 261, 270, 283 trade barriers, 282 trade secrets protection, 194-195 transgenic animals, 92 transgenic plants 101, 102 U.S.
From page 421...
... firms, 119, 120 negotiating position in GATT, 354 patent law, 84, 171-172 pharmaceutical protection, 327 plant breeding, 101-103 prevention of technology losses in, 73-74 ranking of, 69, 93, 99 n.9, 123, 136, 140 reforms, 84, 125 n.11, 171-173 research stature and, 83 and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133 sui generis legislation, 314 and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118 trade secrets protection, 78, 172 Bridges, Bill, 348 Brunelleschi, 46 Building materials industry, sales losses due to weak IPR, 132 Bush, Vannevar, 214 Business Software Association of the United States, 236 C Calvin, Melvin, 156 Cameras, miniature color video, 340 Camcorders, 340 Canada, 91 effects of TRIPS on, 177 multinational firms' R&D expenditures in, 137 semiconductor protection, 336 Carnegie Commission, 199 Case law on adaptation of IPR to new technologies, 270-271 421 Allen and Hanbury's v.
From page 422...
... firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 116, 115, 117, 118, 121, 131, 139 joint ventures by country, 117 Index licensing of technology in developing countries, 119, 120 sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115 sales losses due to weak IPR, 132, 133 technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118, 119 imitation of, 126 innovation rates, 134 patentability of, 92, 96, 124, 125, 126, 136, 163, 171, 206, 279, 369 Chilean IPR, 84 and economic development, 236 and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117, 216 and licensing of technology by U.S.
From page 423...
... 166, 171-172, 176, 177, 191, 196, 209, 217, 239, 240, 250, 252, 262-264, 270, 275, 282-283, 285-286, 289, 294, 295, 299-300, 304-309 cross licensing, 280, 292 customized, 196 DAC Easy, 234 data structures for, 303-304 Recompilation as infringement, 262, 265, 266, 291-292, 299-300, 310, 312 digital media, 315-316 dimensions of protection, 262 Executive, 234 future challenges in protection of, 314 318 historical overview, 284-293 hypertext navigation systems, 317 interface protection, 266, 269, 280, 289, 295, 296, 299, 300, 312, 352-353 international perspectives on, 15, 92, 251 252, 264, 282-283, 309-314, 317-318 latent semantic indexin:, algorithms, 317 litigation, 280, 290 logic, 312 networks, 267-269, 280, 316-317, 353 423 for open systems, 263, 268-269 for parallel processing, 263 patent protection, 6, 7, 8, 50, 147, 196, 240, 243, 250, 265, 280, 282, 286-288, 290, 292, 295, 301-304, 309-310, 317 personal computer and, 288-289 piracy of, 233-234 processing flows, 314 protection of, 294-309 registration Qt. 235 relational data bases, 54; see also Integrated information networks rental rights, 177 research and development, 293 reverse engineering of, 314 shrink-wrap licensing, 291, 292 solutions to IPR problems, 263-266 source codes, 286, 290, 295 special issues, 262-263 spreadsheets, 54 sui generis protection, 8, 240, 266, 282, 312, 313 trade secret protection, 196, 236, 239, 284-285, 286, 288, 290, 291-292, 295, 300 Translate, 234 translation from one programming, language to another, 295 U.S.
From page 424...
... 424 Copyrights/copyrighting adaptation to new technologies, 23, 250 251 breadth of protection, 8, 30, 42, 53-54, 161, 264 and censorship, 52, 53 common pool problems, 33-34, 35-36 for compilations of data, 177 for computer software, 8, 54, 72, 125, 166, 171-172, 176, 177, 196, 240, 252, 262-264, 270-271, 275, 282, 285-287, 289, 294, 299-300, 304-309 consent decree, 269 n.41 defined, 30 distinction from patents, 7, 30, 49, 54 economics of, 37, 51 enforcement practices, 91-92 exclusions, 298-299, 304-305 historical background, 51-54 infringement of, 250, 291-292, 296-297, 316-317 international code on, 15 international conventions, 20 and knowledge production, 42 leniency in infringement proceedings, 42 levy on blank recording tapes, 160-161 misuse of, 276 modified approach, 282, 304-309 piracy, 11, 52 priority in awards of, 33 purpose of, 250, 286 reforms, 56, 171 registration process, 285 royalty collection and distribution, 278 term of protection, 30, 49, 53, 91, 264, 285, 313, 332 trade negotiations related to, 176-177 traditionalist compared to protectionist view, 299-300 weak protection of, 124 for works written by others, 51-52 Corning Glass Works, 211, 217-219, 242, 340 Corporations family-owned companies, 211 publicly traded companies, 212 Standard and Poor 500, 211-212 threats to, 378 see also Multinational companies; Small businesses Council of Ten in Venice, 52 Index Council on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 178 Counterfeiting, 11, 123 Court of Justice of the European Communities, 159 Cross-licensing, 55, 102, 119, 152, 191, 219 benefits of, 228 in computer industry, 369-370 and information exchange, 237 and litigation, 278-280 patent protection and, 369-370 in semiconductor industry, 369-370 and working requirements, 242 Crumpe, Robert, 48 Cunningham, Mark, 212 D Data bases originality source in, 269 n.42 protection of information in, 181, 267269, 282-283 David, Paul A., 19-61, 147, 151, 155, 156, 184, 186, 189, 376, 371, 405-406 Davis, Randall, 262, 306 Developing countries academic research, 199-200 advantages of stronger IPRs to, 367-368 attitudes about IPR, 110, 153, 170, 200 biotechnology protection in, 95-96 "brain drain" from, 71 exclusion of products and processes from protection, 92 expropriation of intellectual property, 4-5, 10-11, 19-20 government role in research, 199 incentives for IPR in, 215, 363 intellectual property rights in, 73-74, 110, 200, 215 licensing in, 100, 111 natural comparative advantage, 366, 367 optimal levels of IPR protection, 104-105 piracy by, 360 protection strategies of businesses in, 73 74 R&D intensities, 362-365 relevance of India's IPR system for, 165 166 research needs on IPR protection, 135 139 research opportunities in, 82-83, 200-201
From page 425...
... firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 117, 118, 121 cross licensing in, 278 importance of IPR to, 192 innovation rates and IPR, 134 joint ventures by country, 117 multinational firm's competitive strategy, 228-232 product and process life cycles in, 214, 373-374 sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115 sales losses due to weak IPR, 132 technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118 Elizabeth I, 48 Elzevir family, 52 Enforcement of IPR adapted for new technologies, 249, 275281 informal approaches, 213, 278-281 judicial, 275-278 levels of, 98 loopholes in TRIPS, 371 mechanisms, 249 mediation, 213 national differences in, 91-92 trade policy and, 178, 360-361 England copyrights, 53 patents, 45, 46, 47-48 Stationers' Company, 53 Statute of Monopolies, 48 Tudor dynasty, 47-48, 53 Entertainment industry, 12, 123 sales losses due to weak IPR, 132 Environmental Quality Corporation, 217 Estonia, 73 Ethyl, 211 Europe/European Community biotechnology protection, 9, 163, 253, 261-262, 270, 271, 282 computer program protection, 240, 268269, 282, 310, 311-313 congruence of IPR systems, 70, 86, 152 copyright laws, 159, 160, 161 foreign direct investments by, 147, 226227 IPR approach, 158-162 Maastricht Treaty, 159
From page 426...
... firms on, 114-119, 147 in biotechnology, 101, 226-227 in component-manufacturing facilities, 112-114, 130-131 composition of, 130-131, 140 corporate taxation level and, 127-128 disincentives for, 111-112, 205-206 driving forces in, 370-371 export/import ratio and, 127-128 GDP attributable to wholesale and retail trade, transport, and communication and, 127-128 GDP, per capita, and, 127-128 importance of, 193 industry-specific attitudes, 112-114, 139 joint ventures, 114-116, 140 national executive's frequency of change and, 127-128 non-IPR factors affecting, 127-128, 226, 227 protection of intellectual property rights and, 99 n.9, 100, 110, 111-114, 130 131, 139-140, 215, 240, 370-372 in R&D facilities, 112-114, 131, 139 in rudimentary production and- assembly facilities, 112-114, 130-131 sales and R&D expenditures of firms and, 115, 130-131 in sales and distribution outlets, 112-114, 139 technology transfer via, 111-114 types of, 112-114 unauthorized use of intellectual property and, 131-133 urbanization and, 127-128 in wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118 119, 184
From page 427...
... firms, 114, 117 and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120 ranking of, 123, 140 and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118 Hughes Aircraft Company, 340, 348 Human Genome Project, 258-259, 261 I IBM Corp., 192, 198, 211, 213, 237, 293 n.24, 312, 341 Imitation, 34 costs of, 82, 134 economic compared to legal, 75 in packaging of products, 125 Immunex, 320 Imports/importation infringing, 12, 132, 323 franchise contracts, 48, 50, 51 of technologies by developing countries, 363 Ins as working a patent, 167, 177 Indian IPR burden of proof, 163 characteristics, 152, 162-164 compulsory licensing, 125, 164, 165
From page 428...
... firms, 119, 120 ranking of, 123 and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118 Industrial and farm equipment industry, 12, 124 sales losses due to weak IPR, 132 Industrial Biotechnology Association, 260, 327 Industrial designs, 171, 251, 306, 307, 311 Industrial Property Institute (Mexico) , 171 Infant industries, 81-82 Information technologies importance to R&D, 198 protection by U.S., 20 and strengthening of IPR, 184 Infringement of IPR analysis of losses due to, 11-12 antitrust violation for misuse of, 276 n.67 in biotechnology, 259 burden of proof, 163, 167, 171, 179 causes, 10-11 copyright, 250, 291 -292, 316-317 Recompilation of computer programs as, 250, 262, 265, 266, 291-292 definition of, 11 economic losses due to, 10, 11-12, 131133 Index indirect effects of, 12 industries affected, 10, 12 international, 10-12 level of, 10 for network software, 268 "paper trail" as a defense, 337-338 patent breadth and, 38 penalties for, 171 for pharmaceuticals, 184 rationale for leniency in proceedings, 42 survey time for patents and, 232 trademarks, 125 and U.S.
From page 429...
... ~ conventions Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, 20, 171, 176, 181, 196, 240, 264, 360 Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purpose of Patent Procedure, 9 n.2 effectiveness in developing countries, 363 extent of protection offered by, 4 Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, 20, 90 n.2, 170, 196, 230, 360 Patent Cooperation Treaty, 86 Patent Law Harmonization Treaty, 179 180 for protection of new plant varieties, 102 reciprocity provisions, 272 trade secret protection in, 177-178 Trademark Law Harmonization Treaty, 180-181 Universal Copyright Convention, 264 Washington Chip Treaty, 177, 203 n.3, 335, 352, 353 429 International Intellectual Property Alliance, 169 n.2 International IPR regimes barriers to achieving, 13-14, 15 characteristics, 14 dispute resolution, 359 enforcement mechanism, 366 importance of, 65-66 national interest of U.S. and, 12 and trade, 15-16, 20 International Trade Commission (U.S.)
From page 430...
... industries, 133 and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118 trade secrets law, 171 L Labuda, Ed, 348 Lasers, 340, 346, 348 Latin America working requirements for patents, 91 see also individual countries Law, see Case law; Intellectual property law; Legislation League for Programming Freedom, 303 Lee, Jeong, 131 Legislation Act of Queen Anne (British) , 53, 54 Biotechnology Patent Protection Act of 1991, 277 n.69 Copyright Act (1790)
From page 431...
... firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 118, 121, 131 innovation rates and IPR, 134 joint ventures by country, 117 sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115 technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118 Machlup, Fritz, 43 Malaysia, copyright law, 171 Mansfield, Edwin, 107-145, 240, 369, 370, 411 Manufacturing processes, patentability of, 92 Marks of origin, 125 Mars Corporation, 160 Marshall Plan, 214-215 Marx, Karl, 25 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 208, 213, 262 Maurer, Bob, 219
From page 432...
... industries, 133 and software industry, 191, 232-236 and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118 trade secrets, 171, 236 trademarks and industrial designs, 171 Microorganisms deposit of cultures, 9, 223 patentability, 171, 260 Mitsubishi, 219 Monopoly bilateral contracts with other innovators, 39 Index deadweight burden of, 34-35, 36 franchise, 40-41, 53, 55 publicly regulated private, 27 temporary, 41 trade, 47 Mossinghoff, Gerald, 157 Motor vehicle and motor vehicle parts industries, 12 innovation rates and IPR, 134 sales losses due to weak IPR, 132 Motorola, 211 Mowery, David C., 358, 368-372, 386, 413414 Multinational companies alliances with small firms ~ countries, 200-201 in developing competitive strategy, IPR and, 221-240 dominance of markets, 81 electronics firm, 228-232 hostility from developing countries, 119 pharmaceutical firm, 221-228 software firm, 232-236 telecommunications firm, 236-240 N National Agricultural Chemicals Association (U.S.) , 133, 140 National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works, 263, 271, 273, 285 n.2, 289, 290, 297-298 National Institutes of Health, 16, 258, 327 National IPR regimes administrative bureaucracy, 85 advantages and disadvantages of, 66-67, 93-97 closed-economy trade-offs, 94 congruent systems, 70, 90, 201, 204, 206; see also Uniform intellectual property system copyright protection, 91-92 cost reduction opportunities, 85 determinants of success, 194 differentiation of, 91-98, 100-101 enforcement levels, 91-92, 98 evaluation of, see Evaluation of IPR protection evolution of, 193 foreign invention protection, 109 global welfare perspective, 103-105 importance of, 99, 193
From page 433...
... Coherent Radiation, 348-349 TAT-8 cable, 340, 346 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 100, 111, 362 p Pacific Intellectual Property Association, 157 Paraguay, 86 Patent Law Harmonization Treaty, 179-180 Patents/patenting, 27 adaptation to new technologies, 250-251, 270 advantages and disadvantages, 32, 43, 147, 156 application content and format standards, 179 bilateral monopoly contracts with other innovators, 39 breadth of protection, 4, 91, 161, 163, 180, 265, 287 "breakthrough," 39 claims drafting, 202, 218, 242 common pool problems, 33-34, 35-36 community, 160 competitive bidding scheme for, 39 consent decrees, 243 cost of filing, 218, 344 creation of U.S. system, 48-50 compulsory licensing, 91, 98, 125, 153, 164, 167, 171, 177
From page 434...
... 434 Index deadweight burden of monopoly, 34-35, 36 defensive policy, 228, 243, 344 deficiencies in law, 28 defined, 44, 155 design, 29, 46 disclosure provisions, 45, 46, 179 distinction from copyrights, 7, 30, 49, 54 Doctrine of equivalents, 157-158 economic development and, 109 economics of, 275-276 electronic filing of applications, 156-157 English language specifications in, 179, 180 as entrepreneurial assets, 191 for evolutionary minor developments, 219 examination process, 180, 243 exchange of licenses among firms, 55-56 exclusionary rules, 77-78, 91, 124-125, 163, 167, 170-172 experimental use exemption, 261 extension of application period, 219 "first to invent" compared to "first to file," 152, 157, 179, 180, 218, 281 n.77, 281 "first to publish" as a basis for, 218 flooding, 327 of genetic sequences, 16, 327 globalization of, 219, 239 historical background, 43, 44-50 "imitation," 368 import, 47, 48-49 increase in number of, 256 index of conformity to minimum standards, 122 and information infrastructure of the future, 317 infringement of, 11, 38, 163 and innovation, 114, 133-135, 140-141 interindustry differences in effects of, 369 international cooperation on, 15, 20, 260 261; see also International conventions interpretation of claims, 158, 179 invalidation claims, 125 "inventing around," 42, 55 and investment in R&D, 108 laws, 47, 84, 86, 90 n.2 licensing of, 161 litigation, 230-232, 270, 271, 275-276, 344, 348-349 and marketing strategy, 224-227, 236-238 of microorganisms, 171, 260 misuse doctrines, 243-244, 276 model law, 90 n.2 monopolies, 244 as nontariff trade barrier, 155 number of applications, 274 offensive, 344 originality, novelty, and nonobviousness tests, 30, 46, 202, 243, 250, 351 overlap with copyright protection, 250 peripheral, 228, 229 petty, 351 previous publication or disclosure and, 9, 16 priority in awards of, 33 process of obtaining, 344 process versus product, 134, 163, 165, 179, 254 progeny of patented life form included under, 253, 259, 261 prospect theory approach to, 38-39, 55 publication of applications, 179 publication prior to, 281 n.77 races/racing, 33-34, 35, 39, 55 rationale for, 45, 49, 108-109, 164-165, 221-222, 339 on recombinant DNA technique, 6 reforms, 48, 72, 84, 171-173 retroactive "pipeline," 174, 178 revenue generation by, 85 simultaneous invention and, 220 social costs of, 108-109 specifics of, 97-98, 103 suitability for new technologies, 23 and technological advances, 41-42, 55 and technology transfer, 44, 45-47, 48, 49, 55, 226 term of protection, 4, 29, 45, 47, 91, 97, 125, 153, 164, 167, 171, 172, 177, 179, 180, 224, 260 n.l2, 287 trade negotiations related to, 177 and unproductive competition, 38-39 uniformity in, 97-98, 104-105 utility/petty, 85-86, 95 welfare implications in North-South context, 103-105 working requirements, 91, 98, 125, 153, 167, 177, 242-243 see also specific technologies Patronage system, 29, 32-33
From page 435...
... firms, 120 patents, 125 ranking of, 122, 123 and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118 Phillips, 237 Photographic goods industry, 12 Photolithography, 330 Photophone, 340 Piracy, 5, 11, 52 competence and, 363 of computer software, 233 corporate, 233 by developing countries, 360 increases in, 189 industrial, 233 by newly industrializing countries, 169 and research and development, 205 sales losses due to, 233-234 Plant breeders' rights, 10, 84, 96, 103 n.15, 282, 367 Plant-breeding research, 166 Plant varieties certificate of protection, 271 legislation, 260 n.9 patents, 171, 185, 261 Polanyi, Michael, 28 Policy issues, 12 defining, 261 interaction of other policies, 16 trade, 15-16 trade-offs, 13-16 vision of an international regime, 14-15 Poor countries production capabilities and IPR, 93 special and differential treatment, 80-81 Predatory hiring, 74, 78, 136, 343, 345 Preston, John T., 190, 208-213, 217, 414 Price elasticity of demand, and length of patent protection, 36, 97 Primo Braga, Carlos Alberto, 153, 168-174, 183-184, 370, 415-416 Printing trade and technology, 47' 51, 56 sales losses due to weak IPR, 132 Procurement system, 29, 32, 33-34 Property defined, 31 system, 29; see also Intellectual property system
From page 436...
... . reasons for macequacles in some countries, 124-125 reform processes, 282 research capabilities and, 95, 109 research needs on, 135-139 resistance to reforms, 84 segmentation of technology and, 74 and technology transfer, 87, 111-112, 116-119 Index trade-offs in, 4, 55 see also Copyrights; Intellectual property law; Patents Protectionism, 5 Public good knowledge as, 24 properties of, 27 solutions to problem of, 29 Putnam, Henry Haven, 52 R Radar, 340 Rathmann, George, 244, 254, 319-328, 416 RCA David Sarnoff Labs, 340 Recombinant DNA technique, 6 Regimes, Intellectual property rights regimes; see International IPR regimes Registration protection, 224, 235 Research and development benefits of growth in, 207 capabilities and IPR protection, 93-95, 109 common pool problem, 33-34, 39 cooperative, 189, 197-198, 200-201 defense procurement procedures and, 199 federal government expenditures, 214 foreign direct investment in facilities for, 112-114, 131, 137, 139 funding for, 79-80, 101-102, 194, 199, 377-378 globalization of, 198-199 government role in, 197, 199 intensities in developing countries, 362 365 lack of legal protection and, 73 litigation and, 276 opportunities in developing countries, 82 83 patent protection and investment in, 108, 227, 274 piracy as a barrier to, 205 private sector intensities, 362-363, 365 proliferation and globalization trends, 197-201, 207 public sector intensities, 362, 364, 366 367 resource allocation to, 39 risks, 197 stature of programs as a product of IPR protection, 83
From page 437...
... Index and technological knowledge, 26-27 uniform international IPR and, 79, 83 Research needs on IPR, 391-393 adaptation to new technologies, 393 costs and benefits of modifying patent systems, 136-137 cultural traditions and practices, 391 economic effects on developing countries, 392 data deficiencies and developing country conformance to IPRs, 392 effects of stronger protection, 133-139, 392-393 effects of weak protection, 71, 73-75, 393 "first to invent" compared to "first to file," 393 free riding, 75 indigenous technological innovation in developing countries, 392-393 methodological difficulties, 71-73, 75-76 multinational firms' R&D expenditures in developing countries, 137 patent protection and R&D expenditures in developing countries, 135-136 piracy effects, 392 sui generis approaches, 393 trade retaliation effects, 392 uniform compared to differentiated systems, 392 Research parks cooperation among firms in, 136 funding problems in developing countries, 74 Resource allocation in developing countries, 76-77 and enforcement levels, 98 inefficiencies in, 33-34, 39 protection of intellectual property and, 43 to R&D, 39 weak IPR systems and, 77 Reverse engineering, 76 of computer codes, 262, 265, 314 costs of, 334, 337 of high-intensity ultraviolet lamp, 219 and lawsuits, 335 "paper trail," 334, 337-338 royalty rates and, 34 of seed hybrids, 101 n.12 of semiconductor chips, 19, 268, 272, 332, 334, 335, 352 437 Rubber products industry innovation rates and IPR, 134 sales losses due to weak IPR, 132 Rules of origin, 371 Russia, 73 S Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 235 Samuelson, Pamela, 234, 250, 252, 253-254, 284-318, 416 Scientific and technological advances and effectiveness of IPR, 241-243 incremental refinement trends, 201-203 protection of, 6, 9 regional asymmetries in cost of and access to, 358, 373-377 trends in, 189, 190, 195-196, 207, 358359, 377-380 Scientific goods industry, 12 innovation rates and IPR, 134 sales losses due to weak IPR, 132 Secrecy, costs of, 35 Semiconductor chips adaptation of IPR to, 15 age of technology, 240 case law, 331 case study, 329-338 compulsory licensing of, 177 and computer software protection, 288 289 copyright protection, 331, 331 defining the technology, 332-333 fabrication process, 330 history of, 329-332 innocent infringer provisions, 177, 336 internationalizing protection, 335-337, 352 layout designs, 177 legislation, 8, 252' 254, 272, 329, 331, 334-336, 352 lump-sum licensing, 237 mask works, 331, 332, 333, 352 patentability of, 6, 8, 84, 124, 177, 279 protection of, 92, 250, 334-337 reverse engineering of, 272, 332, 334, 335, 352 scope and limitations of protection, 177, 334-335 sui generis protection of, 8, 203-204, 252, 254, 272, 282, 309, 332, 333, 335, 352
From page 438...
... firms, 120 ranking of, 123, 140 and R&D investments in, 137 n.24 reforms, 72, 171 and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118 Skolnikoff, Eugene B., 359, 380-383, 386, 417 Small businesses advantages of stronger IPRs to, 371 biotechnology firms, 275-276, 328 and economic stability in developing countries, 215-216 innovation rates, 280 n.75, 283 litigation threats to, 252, 254, 275-276, 353 patents as assets, 369 protection of, 281 software industry, 234, 302 Small Business Innovation Research program, 218 Smith, Adam, 71 Soft Tec, 234 Software, see Computer programs/software Software Action Group for Europe, 312 n.75 Southeast Asia working requirements for patents, 91 see also individual countries Soviet Union (former) , trade secret law, 84 Spain, IPR computer software protection, 235 and joint ventures with U.S.
From page 439...
... compulsory licensing under, 153, 167 computer program protection, 206 copyright and related rights, 176-177 dispute settlement under, 177, 372 Dunkel draft, 152-153, 185-186, 239 240, 371 enforcement of IPR, 153, 178, 371 exclusions under, 177, 206 and foreign direct investment, 370 implications for developing countries, 167-168, 170 India's position on, 162, 167-168 investment and trade effects of, 358, 368 372 key issues, 153, 167, 176-178 negotiations related to, 153, 175, 176-178 objectives, 175, 186 patents, 153, 167, 177 and reforms of IPR regimes, 172 semiconductor layout designs, 177, 336 status of, 173-174, 176 suitability as forum for uniformity, 185 186 trade secrets, 177-178 transitional period before required adherence to, 153, 178 Trade Related Investment Measures, 371 Trade secret protection, 27, 96, 166 application to process technology, 203 for computer programs, 196, 236, 239, 284-285, 290, 291-292, 294, 295 cost reduction opportunities, 85 defined, 31
From page 440...
... interests in, 376 Union for the Protection of New Varieties, 261, 282 United Kingdom biotechnology protection, 258 multinational firms' R&D expenditures in, 137 semiconductor protection, 336 United States Articles of Confederation, 49 biotechnology research in, 201, 254 conflicts with developing countries, 317318 defense procurement procedures, 199 effects of stronger IPR on, 372 federal government views on IPR, 190, 214-216
From page 441...
... Patent and Trademark Office, 4, 249 Commissioner of Patents, 157 complaints about, 302 efficiency of' 281, 328, 349 examination standard, 349 number of applications processed, 274 policy analysis process, 253 training of administrative staff, 86 U.S. patent system advantages of, 201 biotechnology patents, 77-78, 226, 253, 257, 259-260, 276-277, 327-328, 367 burden of proof on infringement, 163 changes in, 23, 156 compulsory licensing, 163 computer program patents, 7, 8, 201, 234, 243, 252, 286-288, 292, 301-302, 308 309 creation of, 48-50 delay in issuance of patents, 254, 258, 274-275, 324 effect of Patent Law Harmonization Treaty on, 179-180 effect of TRIPS on, 177 exclusionary rules, 91, 163 "first to invent" standard, 152, 157 origin of, 184-185 term of protection, 327 U.S.
From page 442...
... t 442 W Washington, George, 49, 50 Western Electric Company of Illinois, 228 Westwood, Albert R.C., 401-402 Whelan Associates, 296 World Bank, 71, 72, 85, 216 World Intellectual Property Organization, 66, 162, 167, 175 Berne Convention protocol, 181 biotechnology study, 260-261, 270 Committee of Experts, 180-181, 260 n.14, 273 discussions, 153, 179-182 dispute settlement between states, 181182 Index functions of, 15, 16 model patent law, 90 n.2 objectives, 175 Patent Law Harmonization Treaty, 179180 reform processes, 282 review of patent differences, 91 n.3 study group on harmonization, 157-158 Trademark Law Harmonization Treaty, 180-181 training of administrative staff, 86 Washington Chip Treaty, 203 n.3, 335336


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