Nutritional Needs in Hot Environments Applications for Military Personnel in Field Operations (1993) / Chapter Skim
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Index A Acc l im atiz ation/ac cl i mati on age and, 14, 15 air-conditioning and, 196, 199-200 and aldosterone levels, 268, 274 and appetite, 19-20, 107, 109, 200201 B complex vitamin supplementation and, 148-149 body weight and, 107-108, 195 defined, 7, 108 dietary requirements following, 107108 and energy requirements, 19, 29-30, 45, 109 and exercise, 62-63, 262 and food intake, 28, 29-30, 48, 185 and gastrointestinal functioning, 81 and gender differences in response to heat stress, 13-14 glycogen sparing effect, 65 heat illness symptoms during, 288290 and lactate levels, 65, 66 and metabolic rate, 11, 59, 61, 63, 104-105, 108 363 NaCl balance during, 247-255, 259260, 268-269 and nitrogen loss from sweating, 206 and oxygen uptake, 59, 62, 105, 108 physique and, 194-195 and plasma renin activity, 268, 269, 274 and plasma volume, 274 and sodium/NaC1 intakes, 17-18, 248, 262, 270, 277 and sweat rates, 16, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96 and thermoregulation, 7, 16, 55, 70, 92 vitamin C and, 48-49, 148-149, 152, 159, 160, 169 see also Temperature (environmental) Acute-phase response, 122, 123, 125, 126-127 Adiposity, and sweating response, 96 Adrenocorticotropic hormone synthesis, 150 Aero Medical Laboratory, 97 Aerobic fitness age and, 14 nitrogen losses and, 111
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, 5 Ascorbic acid, see Vitamin C Aspirin, 76, 203 B B complex vitamins deficiencies, 138, 147, 149 and energy metabolism, 20-21, 141, 159 functions of, 138-139 and physical performance, 147-148 MRDAs vs RDAs, 20-21 recommendations, 149, 159 requirements for, 159 supplementation, 148-149 sweat losses of, 48~9, 148, 159 see also individual B vitamins Beriberi, 139 Beta-carotene, 154, 155, 160 Beta-endorphin levels, 80 Biotin deficiencies, 147 functions, 147 MRDAs vs RDAs, 10 Blood flow/circulation age and, 15 exercise in the heat and, 65, 68-70, 80 fluid losses and, 12 and gastrointestinal functioning, 77 and heat transfer, 6-7, 12, 68-70 hepatic, 71 skeletal muscle metabolism and, 65 skin, 68-70 see also Plasma/serum Body fat and environmental temperature, 190191 and sweating, 94-95 Body mass, on NaC1 diets during acclimatization, 250 Body temperature age and, 15 and appetite, 201, 203, 212-13 body weight and, 47 cephalic, 201, 298-299
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INDEX clothing and, 12 environmental temperature and, 89 esophageal, 69 exercise in the heat and, 13-14, 5658, 89, 90 evaporative heat loss and, 6-7, 65-68 fever, 203 and food intake control, 191, 201202, 298 and gastrointestinal functioning, 11, 49, 79-80, 192 gender differences in, 13-14, 94 and hunger and satiety, 27-28 metabolic rate and, 56-58, 70 NaCl intake and, 260, 269 skin, 69, 212, 298 stress and, 28, 196-197 and sweat rates, 12, 67, 91, 96 see also Thermogenic effect of eating Body water avenues of loss and gain, 88-89 distribution, 87, 88 sweat rate, 89 Body weight below-normal, 28 body temperature and, 47 and caloric intake, 99, 100, 103 eating behavior and, 225-226, 230 environmental temperature and, 190191, 195-196, 201, 298, 300 hypothalamic disturbances and, 192 light exposure and loss of, 205 MRE intake and loss in, 216, 218219 NaC1 diet and, 257 seasonal variation in, 202, 205 set point, 192-193, 195, 197, 202, 208, 298 Burning foot syndrome, 145 C Caffeine, 35, 175, 176 Calcium, 24 exercise and absorption of, 49 metabolism, 154, 156, 170 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9 pantothenate, 148 365 Caloric intake acclimatization and, 19, 29-30, 45, 109 and B vitamin intake, 139-140, 159 body weight and, 99, 100, 103 clothing and, 101, 103 deficiency, 110, 111 eating conditions and, 220-224 environmental temperature and, 1920, 98, 99, 101, 199-205, 300 exercise and, 19, 49, 101 and heat stress, 27 and metabolic rate, 99 from military rations, 215-216, 218219 physical fitness and, 98 and protein intake, 19 seasonal changes in, 30 social eating and, 231-232 time of day and, 235 by troop and ration types, 102 and weight loss in hot climates, 30, 300 Capillary permeability, 77 Capsaicin, 25, 178-179, 184-185 Carbohydrate intakes acclimatization and, 29 body weight and, 100 chromium regulation of metabolism of, 119 deficiency, 110, 111, 112 environmental temperature and, 1920, 98, 100, 101, 206, 300 intestinal absorption during exercise, 80-81 from MREs, 46-47 and nitrogen excretion, 111 percentage of calories provided by, 100 physical fitness and, 98 seasonal changes in preferences for, 206 thermic effects of, 198 thiamin and, 139, 140 by troop and ration types, 102 and vitamin B6, 145 vitamin B i2 and, 146 World War I requirements, 5 Cardiac diseases, magnesium and, 125
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. tunctlonlng 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate synthesis, 135 E Eating patterns and body weight, 191, 225-226 brain temperature and, 27 environmental temperature and, 200 factors affecting, 24-31, 35, 46 humans, 199-200 meal shifts and duration, 35, 230 nonhumans, 200-202 social/psychological aspects of, 3435, 229-233 and thermoregulation, 26, 189, 192198 tobacco use and, 35 see also Food intake Electrolyte balance and fluid requirements, 15-16, 49 and food preferences, 180
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intakes body weight and, 100 deficiency, 110, 111 environmental factors and preferences for, 26, 28, 29
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368 environmental temperature and, 98, 100, 101, 300 and heat stress, 27, 46-47, 298 MRE content, 46-47 organoleptic changes in hot environments, 47 percentage of calories provided by, 100 physical fitness and intakes, 98 preferences for, 198 thermic effects of, 198 by troop and ration types, 102 vitamin BE and, 146 World War I requirements, 5 Fat-soluble vitamins functions, 154 requirement for hot environments, 21 storage/retention, 154 see also individual vitamins Fatty acid antioxidant, 156 metabolism, 138-139 mobilization, 143 oxidation, 142 synthesis, 147 Fever, and appetite, 203 Flavor defined, 174 food temperature and, 204 research needs on perceptions of, 181 Fluid intakes age and, 14-15 electrolyte balance and, 15-16 and food intake, 47-48 gender and, 13-14, 33-34 palatability of water and, 34 recommendations, 50 requirements for hot environments, 11-16 see also Water requirements Fluids avenues of loss and gain, 12, 88-89 determinants of losses, 87-88 electrolyte-carbohydrate beverages, 23 interstitial volume, 88 lost as sweat, 67-68 Fluoride MRDAs vs RDAs, 10 INDEX Folate/folic acid deficiency, 146, 147 forms and functions, 147 and physical performance, 147 MRDAs and RDAs, 8-9, 159, 160 temperature and exercise effects of requirements, 20-21 supplementation, 147 sweat losses of, 138 see also Biotin Food and Agriculture Organization Committee on Caloric Requirements, 101 Vitamin BE RDA, 21 Food Consumption Survey, 301 Food flavors chemical irritation/chemesthesis, 178-179 menthol, 185 spicy "hot," 178-179, 185-185 tactile perception, 175, 178 see also Olfaction; Taste Food intakes accessibility of food and, 226 acclimatization and, 28, 29-30, 48, 109 in battle situations, 31-32, 52 cephalic effect, 28, 192 and constipation, 33-34 constraints on, 225-229 cost aspects of food availability and, 226 defined, 26, 188-189 and dehydration, 28, 36, 47-48, 298 eating conditions and, 218-224 environmental concerns, 33 and environmental temperature, 2627, 33, 187, 199-205, 297-298 factors influencing, 25-26, 47, 50 field observations of, 33-36 fluid intake and, 47-48 food temperature and, 25, 26, 197198 gastrointestinal effect, 28, 192 and hyperthermia, 27, 47, 191, 193, 201, 298 ice cream, 206 NaCl intake and, 299 nutrition understanding and, 35
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INDEX observational data on, 299-301 osmotic factors in, 299 palatability and, 109, 173-175, 198 Gender preferences in hot environments, 26, 29-31, 34, 46, 48, 181, 184-185, 198, 204-205 psychological factors in, 181 recommendations for improving, 50 research needs, 51 and salivary flow, 179 seasonal changes in, 30-31, 47 situational influences on, 31-32, 224-236 social factors in, 32, 34-35, 229-233 stress and, 28-29, 36, 47 surveys of troops, 99 tactile perception and, 25, 175, 178, 198 taste and, 173-177, 198 thermogenic effects of, 27-28, 31, 189, 190, 204-205 thermostatic theory of, 298 time of day and, 233-236, 240-241, 242, 243 Free radicals, 156, 158 G Gastrointestinal functioning aspirin use and, 76 body temperature and, 11, 28, 49 dehydration and, 49 food intake and, 28 food temperature and, 204 gastric emptying, 11, 49, 79-80, 202, 204 heat stress and, 49, 75-82 hemorrhage and intestinal ischemia, 76-77 importance of manifestations with exercise-heat stress, 76-79 intestinal absorption, 11, 75, 80-81, 85 intestinal motility, 11, 49, 80 iron supplements and, 121 prevention and management of distress, 81-82 research needs on, 51 sampling methods, 85 369 symptoms of distress, 11, 76, 81 vitamin C and, 76, 81, 170-171 and acclimation to heat, 13-14 and body temperature, 94 and body water, 87 and endurance, 13-14 and fluid intakes, 13-14, 33-34 and fluid requirements, 14-15, 91-92 and food preferences, 26, 185 hormonal responses to low-salt diets, 274-275 and metabolism, 196 and MRDAs, 8-9 and sweat rates, 13-14, 16, 91-92, 93, 94 and thermoregulation, 91-92, 196 Gla-protein, 156 Gluconeogenesis, 143, 144 Glucose beverages, gastric emptying of, 80 hepatic, 64, 71 metabolism, 138-139 serum, during exercise in the heat, 64 tolerance, 119 Glutathione peroxidase synthesis, 118 status, 155 Glycogen depletion, 19, 112 phosphorylase, 144 sparing effects, 65 synthesis, 147 utilization during exercise, 65 Glycogenolysis, 13 Glycolysis, 64, 142 H2 blockers, 81 Heart rate H dehydration and, 12-13 heat stress and, 70, 89, 90 NaCl intake during acclimation trials and, 252, 260, 269 see also Cardiovascular performance Heat acclimatization, see Acclimatization
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370 Heat cramps, 252, 255 Heat exhaustion, 18, 149, 248, 252, 254, 255, 278, 288 Heat illness diet construction for study of, 293 evaluation of overall index of subjective feelings, 286-288, 292 method of study, 278-279, 291 procedure for studying, 279 questionnaire, 278, 288 subjects in study, 278-279 tabulation of symptoms, 279-286 Heat loss convective/radiative, 68-70 evaporative, 65, 67-68, 70, 89 mechanisms, 6-7, 11, 55-56 metabolic rate and, 56 physique and, 28 see also Sweating Heat shock, 151 Heat stress acute, determinants, 11, 12, 28 and cardiovascular performance, 59, 61, 68-70, 71 and food intake, 27, 28-29, 298 and gastrointestinal functioning, 49, 75-82, 85 gender differences in response to, 13-14 and lipid peroxidation, 158 and metabolic rate, 58-64 muscular exercise and, 56 and oxygen uptake, 59, 106 and skeletal muscle metabolism, 6465 thermoregulation and, 7 and vitamin BE status, 147 vitamin C and, 152-153 and weight loss, 298 Heat stroke, 12, 77, 79, 151-152, 252 Heat syncope, 248, 252, 255 Hematopoiesis, 138, 143 Hot tabs, 34, 228, 229 Humidity, 12, 196, 207 Hunger body temperature and, 298 defined, 26, 188, 299 research needs on, 52 stress and, 29, 197 INDEX Hydration importance of, 48, 70 recommendations, 50 and weight loss in hot climates, 30 Hyperphagia, 193, 203 Hypertension, 247 Hyperthermia environmental temperature and, 57 fever, 203 food intake and, 27, 47, 191, 193, 201, 298 and mucosal lesions, 77 psychogenic, 196 skin and muscle blood flow and, 70 sweat losses during, 12, 24 temperature of food and, 198 Hypohydration and cardiovascular performance, 13 and gastric emptying, 80 physical exercise and, 16 arid undernutrition, 110 Hyponatremia, 291 Hypoxia, 52, 64, 77, 158 Hypozincemia, 123 I Immune response, 24, 154 Injury prevention, 149, 151 Interleukin- 1, 167, 203 Interleukin-6, 122 Iodide, sweat losses of, 23 Iodine intakes, 118 metabolism, exercise and heat and, 118 MRDAs and RDAs, 8-9, 118 sweat losses of, 118 Iodized salt, 118 Iron deficiency, 23, 120-121 metabolism, exercise and heat and, 120-121 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9 supplements, 23, 120-121 sweat losses of, 120, 121 and zinc absorption, 23, 121 Ischemic enteropathy, 77, 79
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INDEX K Kanamycin, 79 Ketosis, 112 Krebs cycle, 145, 147 Lactate levels, plasma or muscle, 13, 61, 64-65, 66, 146, 157, 158 Light, and appetite, 205 Lipid peroxidation, 21, 46, 118, 156, 157, 158, 159 metabolism, 119 Low-salt diets acclimation and work in the heat, 262, 268 and aldosterone biosynthesis and release, 260, 263, 264-265, 268, 272-273 and arginine-vasopressin, 260, 263, 267, 268, 269-270 blood sampling, 262-263 and body temperature, 269 design of study, 261 and heart rate, 269 methodology for study of, 261-263 and plasma renin activity, 260, 263, 266-267, 268, 269, 272-273 radioimmunoassays, 263 statistical analysis, 263 subjects, 261 and urinary sodium excretion, 265, 269 M Macronutrients, see Caloric requirements; Protein Magnesium, 24 deficiency, 125, 135 and 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate synthesis, 135 erythrocyte uptake, 135 lymphocyte uptake of, 134 metabolism, exercise and heat and, 124-125 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9 sweat losses of, 24, 124 and work capacity, 125 Manganese MRDAs vs RDAs, 10 371 Metabolism acclimatization and, 11, 59, 61, 63, 108 anaerobic, 61-62, 64, 71, 106 basal, 109-110 and body temperature, 56-58, 70 and caloric intake, 99 environmental temperature and, 60, 89, 110 evaporative heat loss, 6, 65-68 exercise in the heat and, 6, 7, 13, 56, 58-68, 90, 104, 107 gender differences in, 196 and heat stress, 58-61, 71 and lactate levels in plasma or muscle, 61 light and, 205 rate, 6, 7, 11, 13, 55, 56, 58-64, 70, 89, 90 and respiratory exchange ratio, 6162 resting, and dietary-induced thermogenesis, 13, 109-110 skeletal muscle, 11, 55, 64-65 and sweating, 92 Metallothien, liver concentration, 23, 122 Military rations A-rations, 223-224 adequacy for hot environment, 46 acceptability to troops, 216-217, 221, 232, 234 all-environment, survival, 112 beverages, 34, 243 breakfast, 240-243 C rations, 243 caloric intake from, 215-216, 218224 compatibility of foods in MREs, 34, 35, 46, 50 heating of, 227-229 intake determinants, 32, 47-48, 109 laboratory and field differences in intakes, 220-224, 300 meals, ready to eat (MREs) , 32, 3435, 46-47, 122-123, 216, 217, 220-223, 234, 274 menu composition, 216, 217, 234 nutrient intakes by type, 102
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, 250, 257 and body temperature, 260 and heart rates, 260 methods for evaluating, 248-249 and physical performance, 252-254 plasma/serum volume changes during exercise in the heat, 252254, 260 preexercise blood measurements, 250, 252 responses during heat acclimation trials, 252 and subjective reports of heat illness, 277-290 sweat rates, 252 urinalysis, 250, 251, 257 see also Low-salt diets Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, 30 Neutrophil generation, 167 Niacin deficiency, 142 and energy metabolism, 20, 143, 159 exercise and, 142-143 forms and functions, 142, 143 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9 overdose, 143 and physical performance reduction, 168 recommendations, 149, 159 status assessment, 142-143 sweat losses of, 138, 143 see also B complex vitamins Nicotinic acid, see Niacin Night blindness, 154 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, 79, 81; see also Aspirin Nuclear-biological-chemical protective clothing, 12, 65, 67 Nutrient intakes adequacy in hot climates, 31 functional indicators of status, 51 of North American ground troops, 102 research needs on, 51 seasonal changes and, 30
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INDEX Nutritional needs of troops Committee's task, 3-4 early appraisals, 97-103 evidence of changes for work in hot environments, 45-46 MRDA adequacy, 46 temperature changes in desert environments and, 48 World War I, 5 Nutrition understanding, 35 O Obesity, and sweating, 96 Olfaction and eating patterns, food preferences, and intakes, 24-26 environmental temperature and, 180 food temperature and, 204 Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, 3, 22, 32, 33, 34, 36, 46, 47, 48, 87, 113 Overtraining, 76 Oxygen uptake acclimation and, 105, 108 activity level and, 104 aerobic/anaerobic fractions during exercise, 105-106, 147 B complex vitamins and, 147-148 environmental temperature and, 104, 108 and heat illness symptoms, 292 heat stress and, 59, 62, 64, 79 as measure of vitamin supplementation effects, 167-168 pantothenic acid supplementation and, 146 physical fitness and, 108 during rest, 104 and sweating, 91 vitamin E and, 157, 158 p Pantothenic acid deficiency, 145 and exercise, 145-146 forms and functions, 145 MRDAs vs RDAs, 10 373 supplementation, 146 sweat losses of, 138, 146 see also B complex vitamins Pellagra, 142 Phosphorus, 24 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9 Physical fitness and nutrient intakes of troops, 98 and oxygen uptakes, 108 see also Aerobic fitness Physical performance at high altitudes, 157-158 hyperthermia and, 70 hypohydration and undernutrition and, 110 iron deficiency and, 23, 120 magnesium deficiency and, 125 NaCl diet and, 254 vitamin supplementation and, 137138, 140, 141-142, 144, 146, 150, 154-155, 156, 157-158 see also Endurance Physiological changes from exercise in heat, 6-7 and food preferences, 180-181 gastrointestinal functioning, 11 from heat stress, 7, 11 Physique and acclimatization, 194-195 and heat loss, 28 Plasma renin activity, 260, 263, 266267, 268, 269, 272-273 Plasma/serum aldosterone, 254, 255 beta-endorphin levels 80 ceruloplasmin, 125 chromium levels, 23 ferritin levels, 23, 120-121 lactate levels, 64, 106, 146, 157, 158 osmolality, 95, 269 selenium levels, 23 volume changes during exercise in heat, 69, 82, 88, 95, 250, 252254, 260, 268, 273, 274 Potassium in electrolyte-carbohydrate beverages, 23 MRDAs vs RDAs, 10 sweat losses of, 24
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374 Prickly heat, 153 Protein intakes acclimatization and, 29 body weight and, 100 caloric intakes and, 19, 100 changes in requirements for hot environments, 18-19, 45, 47, 112 deficiency, 110, 111, 112 environmental temperature and, 98, 100, 101, 205, 206, 298 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9, 45 physical fitness and, 98 seasonal changes in intakes, 30 sweat losses of nitrogen, 19 thermogenic effects of, 27, 198 by troop and ration types, 102 and urine volume required for excretion, 19, 89, 113 vitamin B6 and, 143, 145, 159 vitamin BE and, 146, 170 World War I requirements, 5 Psychiatric disturbances, magnesium deficiency and, 125 Psychological factors, and food preferences, 181 Pyrexia, 18-19 Pyridoxine, see Vitamin B6 Pyrophosphate, 139 Q Quartermaster Climatic Research Laboratory, 99 R Rations, see Military rations RDAs MRDAs compared with, 8-9 for hot climates, 20-21 Recommendations acclimatization, 208 activity levels, 208 changes in MREs, 35-36, 50 delivery systems and feeding situations, 50, 236 food intakes, 50, 208 food preferences, 208 hydration, 50 INDEX practical, for working in hot environments, 208 vitamin intakes, 159-160 Research needs alliesthesia studies, 207-208 antioxidant vitamins for reduction of heat stress, 51, 158, 160 chromium studies, 120 effects of heat on appetite, 207-208, 301-302 factors that affect food intake, 51 flavor perception, 181-182 food intake under operational conditions, 52 functional indicators of nutritional status, 51 gastrointestinal function in heat, 51 metabolic effect of food intake, 52 mineral intake and physical performance, 52, 127-128 satiety signals in heat, 52 thermic effect of food, 207 Riboflavin deficiency, 141 and energy metabolism, 20, 141, 159 exercise and, 141-142 forms and functions, 20, 141 heat stress and, 142 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9 recommendations, 149, 159 status assessment, 141 supplementation, 142 sweat losses of, 138, 142 see also B complex vitamins Rickets, 155, 156 Runners B complex vitamin supplementation, 148 chromium losses, 119 copper concentrations in, 126 diuretic-induced weight loss, 13 epileptic-type convulsions in, 125 gastrointestinal distress in, 76, 77, 85, 171 histological observations after maximal distance training run, 79 hyperthermia, 57 magnesium metabolism, 124 marathon, 124, 171
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INDEX Salt, 175, 177 Satiety pantothenic acid supplementation, 146 sprint, 157 vitamin C supplementation, 171 vitamin E supplementation, 157-158 water requirements for, 67, 89, 90 S signal, 193-194, 198, 204, 298 social facilitation of eating and, 230 Scurvy, 149 Seasonal affective disorder, 205 Seasonal changes in appetite, 202 in body weight and composition, 202, 300 in food intakes, 30-31, 47, 300-301 and food preferences, 206-207, 301 in nutrient intakes, 30, 300-301 in thyroid activity, 206 Selenium, 23 chromium levels and, 23 intakes, 119 metabolism, exercise and heat and, 118-119 MRDAs vs RDAs, 10 supplements, 118 sweat losses of, 119 Serotonin, 149 Serum, see Plasma/serum Skeletal muscle metabolism, 11, 64-65 Skiing, 139 Smokers, vitamin C requirements, 150 Sodium in electrolyte-carbohydrate beverages, 23 intakes, 247, 277 levels for work in heat, 16-18, 2223 in military-dining-hall food, 17, 18 MRDAs and RDAs, 8-9, 16-17, 247-248 in rations, 17, 18 salicylate, 203 Surgeon General's recommended intakes, 16 375 sweat losses of, 22, 247, 254, 260, 277 see also Low-salt diets; NaCl diets Stress (psychic) and acute-phase response, 127 and appetite, 29, 197 and body temperature, 28, 196- 197 environmental temperature and, 299 and food intake, 28-29, 36, 47 and hunger, 29, 197 intracellular oxidative, 126 MRE use and, 35 and nutrient intakes, 51, 111-112 research needs on, 51 and vitamin C, 150 and zinc absorption, 51, 123-124 see also Heat stress Sucrose, 175, 176 Superoxide dismutase activity, 126 Superoxide radicals, 77 Sweating acclimatization and, 16, 90, 91, 92, 93, 96, 108 aerobic capacity and, 91, 95 age and, 14-15, 16, 91-92, 93, 95 apparel and, 12, 65, 67 body fat and, 94-95, 96 body temperature and, 67, 90, 96 and dehydration, 12, 36, 68, 71 electrolyte losses through, 15 energy expenditure in, 103-104 environmental conditions and, 12, 25, 65, 71, 89-90 exercise and, 11, 12, 13, 16, 65, 67, 71, 89, 90 gender and, 13-14, 16, 91-92, 93, 94 gland fatigue, 89-90 and heat loss, 7, 11, 65, 67-68 humidity and, 12, 196 and metabolic rate, 92, 108 mineral losses through, 22-24, 117, 118, 120, 123, 127 NaC1 diet and, 252 nitrogen losses, 19, 24, 110-111, 206 plasma volume and, 95-96 prediction of rates, 67, 92 rate, 12, 13, 16, 65, 67, 71, 89, 252
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. name assessment of status, 139 and carbohydrate metabolism, 139 deficiency, 139, 140 and energy metabolism, 20, 140, 159 environmental temperature and requirements for, 140 and exercise performance, 139, 140 MRDAs and RDAs, 8-9, 139-140 recommendations, 149, 159 supplementation, 140 sweat losses of, 138, 141 see also B complex vitamins Urinary excretion chromium, 23, 119 mineral losses, 22, 23, 119, 122, 127 nitrogen losses from, 110-111 obligatory volume, 89 plasma changes and, 22, 23 sodium, 254, 255, 265, 269 vitamin losses, 142, 144, 153-154, 168
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INDEX volume required for protein excretion, 19, 89, 113 water intakes and, 88 of zinc, 122 U.S. Army Medical Research and Nutrition Laboratory, 97 Medical Research Laboratory, 99 Natick Research Development and Engineering Center, 216 Quartermaster Food and Container Institute for the Armed Forces, 97, 99 Quartermaster Research and Development Center, 99 Quartermaster Research and Development Command and Medical Nutrition Laboratory, 101 Vitamin C Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 99, 216, 223 V Vegetarians, 146, 170 Vitamin A antioxidant properties, 21, 154, 155 and exercise, 154-155 forms and functions, 154 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9, 21 research needs on, 160 seasonal changes in intakes, 30, 300-301 status assessment, 154 supplementation, 154-155, 160 Vitamin Be, see Thiamin Vitamin B2, see Riboflavin Vitamin B6 carbohydrate intake and, 145 deficiency, 144 and energy metabolism, 20, 159 exercise and, 144 forms and functions, 143-144 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9 performance and, 145 protein intake and, 145, 159 recommendations, 149, 159 retention/storage, 144 status assessment, 144 supplementation, 144-145 377 sweat losses of, 138, 145 urinary excretion of, 144 see also B complex vitamins Vitamin BE deficiency, 146, 169-170 forms and functions, 146-147 and heat stress, 147 MRDAs and RDAs, 8-9, 159, 160 and physical performance, 146 and protein intake, 146, 170 storage/retention, 138 supplementation, 146 temperature and exercise effects of requirements, 20-21 vitamin C and absorption of, 21, 147, 159, 169 see also B complex vitamins and acclimatization, 21, 48-49, 151153, 159, 160, 169 antioxidant properties, 21, 51, 151, 155, 159, 160 and body temperature, 152 deficiency, 139, 149, 150-151, 153 exercise and, 150 functions, 139, 149 and gastrointestinal distress, 76, 81, 170-171 and Heat stress, 21, 48-49, 151-153 and injury rate, 151 megadoses, 147 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9, 21 and muscle soreness, 151 and physical performance, 150 research needs on, 160 seasonal changes in intakes, 30, 300-301 smokers' requirements for, 150 status assessment, 149-150, 153 supplementation, 149, 150, 151, 152, 159, 160 sweat losses of, 138, 151 urinary excretion of, 153-154 and vitamin BE absorption, 21, 147, 159, 169 see also B complex vitamins Vitamin D deficiency, 155, 170 and exercise performance, 156
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111 evaporative losses, 88 fecal losses, 88-89 gastric emptying of, 80 intestinal absorption during exercise, 81, 82 and copper absorption, 24, 124 intakes, 123 iron intake and absorption of, 23, 121 metabolism, exercise and heat and, 23-24, 121-124 metallothien-induced sequestration of, 23, 122 MRDAs vs RDAs, 8-9 and stress, 51, 123-124 superoxide dismutase activity, 126 supplements, 23-24, 124 sweat losses, 23, 123 urinary excretion of, 122, 123
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