Cost, Effectiveness, and Deployment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light-Duty Vehicles (2015) / Chapter Skim
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4 Electrified Powertrains
4 Electrified Powertrains
Pages 129-166
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From page 129... ...
Cur FCEVs: fuel cell electric vehicles, which are also known as fuel rently, electrification technologies have achieved only low cell hybrid vehicles. penetration volumes: 2.75 percent of the market for HEVs, 129
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. Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles do not have a combustion engine and will be discussed later Hybrid (HEV)
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a starter with enough power for an varying degrees, increasing from stop-start and mild hybrids, instant start; (b) a generator to keep the battery charged; and through strong hybrids to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, (c)
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From page 132... ...
The Sonata hyStrong Hybrids brid has a 2.4L engine with a lower rating of 159 hp, with a Strong hybrid electric vehicles use a larger motor/genera- compression ratio of 13:1, indicating that this is an Atkinson tor and battery than mild hybrids, allowing for recapture of cycle version of the base engine, with lower power output energy through regenerative braking as well as greater engine but improved efficiency. The Sonata hybrid also has a 47 hp downsizing.
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From page 133... ...
. my, a 50.3 percent increase in fuel economy, equivalent to a As a result, some of the engine power has to go through the 33.5 percent decrease in fuel consumption compared to the generator-battery-motor loop, which is less efficient than regular Toyota Camry, which registers 38.2 mpg.
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From page 134... ...
. PHEV performance is monitored and vehicle controls reduction in fuel consumption of 26.3 percent for the 2013 switch between electric-only, mixed and engine-only drive two-mode model, which is less than other hybrids.
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Acceleration fuel consumption, or a 73.6 percent improvement in mpg is provided by the motor, rated at 111 kW. The generator is vs.
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From page 136... ...
Since the greatest cost in PHEVs is the battery, it will be interesting to see whether the Toyota succeeds better in the market than the GM Volt, which has higher performance but much higher cost. Battery Electric Vehicles Unlike hybrids, BEVs derive all their propulsion from energy stored in the battery, so their range is limited by bat tery size.
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From page 137... ...
Once the size of the battery was determined, the cost Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles was evaluated via the BatPaC model. The model included varying cost/kWh for BEV, PHEV, and HEV bateries, t Fuel cell hybrids have an architecture similar to series primarily due to their focus on energy in the former and h ybrids, as shown in Figure 4.7, with the engine and generapower in the latter.
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From page 138... ...
communication along with traffic and terrain information. Currently, however, optimal supervisory methodologies address the inherent dependency on the future Supervisory Control Strategies in Hybrid Electric Vehicles information in various ways.
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From page 139... ...
Increasingly, motors are also used to power assessments are required because the hybrid architectures vehicle motion. Electric vehicles in the 1970s and 1980s considered in the studies differ one from the other (i.e., used brush-type traction dc otors that were replaced by m p arallel in Pisu and Rizzoni 2007, series in Di Cairano et induction motors starting with the EV1 in the mid-1990s.
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From page 140... ...
The two coils can a P2 motor operating at 3,000 rpm. Also, the PS architecture be separated by as much as 12 inches and the radiated field appears to be more effective in reducing fuel consumption, can be controlled so that it does not exceed harmful levels as illustrated in Table 4.6.
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batteries for hybrid vehicles and Li-ion batteries volumetric energy density. During cell operation at 3.0-4.2 V, for battery electric vehicles.
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. superior energy density, rate capability, safety, and cycle life.
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Furthermore, silicon usually possesses and a severe loss of energy density, which hinders its practi- low electrical conductivity, which has the effect of kinetically cal application in electric vehicles. Table 4.2 summarizes the limiting the use of the battery.
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Information on the battery SOC is very FIGURE 4.9 Specific R02853 CAFEII 4.9.eps LixAl, LixSn, Li and capacities of graphite, important for supervisory controllers in electrified vehicles LixSi anodes (mAh/g)
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Finally, the BMS influences the vehicle fuel emulate the electrochemical cell behavior. The estimation consumption indirectly, by informing the hybrid electric gain can be computed using various techniques such as pole vehicle supervisory controller about the battery status and placement, sliding mode observer, and Kalman filter, includ- availability (SOC, SOP)
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From page 146... ...
Both systems, HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs. The BatPaC model is a publicly and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in particular, require deavailable bottom-up design and cost model developed for the ployment of an infrastructure for refilling with electricity or Li-ion chemistries with support from the U.S.
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From page 147... ...
that is five times higher than that of the conventional Li-ion inter- Li-Air Batteries calation battery. Sulfur is an abundant material available on Li-air batteries could theoretically provide the needed a large scale and at low cost as a side product of petroleum order of magnitude improvement in energy density because FIGURE 4.12 Scheme of a Li-S cell and its electrochemical reactions.
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This is basically identical to the lower heating value for gasoline which is ~13,000 Wh/kg when oxygen is supplied externally. Unlike any other battery technology, Li-air energy density is competitive with that of liquid fuels.
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From page 149... ...
range of 0.8-2.1 V, which would make it an attractive candi- Solid-state batteries generally have a low power density, date for electric vehicles, electrical grid energy storage, and primarily because of two physical limitations associated stationary back-up energy. with solid-state electrolytes: (1)
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From page 150... ...
From the Final CAFE Rule automotive polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell in the Federal Register it is noted that system based on 2013 technology and operating on direct hydrogen is projected to be $67/kW when manufactured at a • Fuel cell electric vehicles were considered, but deemed volume of 100,000 units/year and $55/kW at 500,000 units/ not ready in the 2017-2025 timeframe (EPA/NHTSA year (Spendelow and Marcinkoski 2014)
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R02853 CAFEII 4.15.eps SOURCE: M Mathias, Honda/GM Fuel Cell Partnership – Moving from Technical to Commercial Viability, SAE 2014 Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Technologies Symposium.
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Much work has been done with the materials supply base for the membranes, catalysts, metal plate materials, and gas diffusion layers, and suppliers are working on the aforementioned BOP components. An example of cost reduction in materials is in the catalyst FIGURE 4.16 Schematic of a hydrogen fuel cell.
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From page 153... ...
Material developments in the catalyst area include improvements in the actual catalyst support, Several parts of the world are preparing for fuel cell vehialloys of various materials, core/shell type technologies to cles by developing a hydrogen infrastructure for refueling. The improve effectiveness and reduce total Pt loading, and sev- hydrogen fuel for FCEVs is required to be very high urity to p eral alternatives with non-precious metal catalyst materials ensure optimum performance.
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From page 154... ...
. The California Fuel Cell large amount of certification data exists for comparison to Partnership reports that if all currently planned and funded the Agencies' estimates; however, it is impossible to directly stations are built as expected, there will be 37 in the state by validate the EPA/NHTSA estimates of fuel consumption by 2015 (Elrick 2013)
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From page 155... ...
In the CAFE simulation resulting in a total fuel consumption effectiveness incremental model, the range of effectiveness used was 23 of 11.6 percent for mild hybrid midsize passenger vehicles to 33 percent as engine downsizing is not assumed (and acrelative to the baseline vehicle (EPA/NHTSA 2012a, 3-75, counted for elsewhere)
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Agencies' FC reduction Certification Certification Fuel Economy projection for Engine Size Certification Certification Combined FE Combined FC Fuel Consumption Improvement midsize vehicle Example Models (L) and Type Transmission City FE (mpg)
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Agencies sized the battery based on an assumed 40 percent SOC swing, thus making the Agencies estimate of the battery 3 See 40 CFR § 1066.501I U 1066 F – Electric Vehicles and Hybrid of the mild hybrid half the size and half the cost of current Electric Vehicles at http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/retrieveECFR? gp=1&SID= implementations.
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From page 158... ...
The effectiveness of the PS hybrid models now availbattery chemistry, and required battery life. Battery life de- able in the market as compared to the effectiveness of their pends on the number of cycles required, the stability of the conventional analogs with the same engine show that the chemistry to cycling at the required state of charge swing, PS architecture provides hybrids with significantly greater the thermal and stress evolution it undergoes, and its shelf reduction in fuel consumption than similar P2 hybrids and life.
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u Energy Fuel Cell Technologies Office. Fuel Cells 2000, Breakthrough org/a ssets/documents/clean_vehicles/electric-car-global-warming- Technologies Institute, Washington D.C.
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2013. Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles: The California Ex- http://www.hybridcars.com/2012-buick-lacrosse-eassist/.
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2014. Nanotin alloys Validation of Power-Split and P2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
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strategies for hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Control Steffke, K.W., S
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2012. National Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Learning Demonstra 1,1.
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151 < 0.01 Other Acura RLX Hybrid 133 < 0.01 BMW Active (535ih) 112 < 0.01 Other Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid 65 < 0.01 2-Mode Lexus LS 600h 65 < 0.01 PS BMW 7-Series Hybrid 45 < 0.01 Other Cadillac Escalade Hybrid 41 < 0.01 2-Mode GMC Yukon Hybrid 31 < 0.01 2-Mode
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From page 165... ...
Smart forTwo EV 2,594 0.0219 BEV Ford Focus EV 1,964 0.0165 BEV Fiat 500E 1,503 0.0127 BEV Cadillac ELR 1,310 0.0110 PHEV Toyota RAV4 EV 1,184 <0.01 BEV Chevrolet Spark 1,145 <0.01 BEV Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid 879 <0.01 PHEV Mercedes B-Class Electric 774 <0.01 BEV BMW I8 555 <0.01 PHEV Honda Accord Plug In 449 <0.01 PHEV Honda Fit EV 407 <0.01 BEV Kia Soul EV 359 <0.01 BEV Volkswagen e-Golf 357 <0.01 BEV Mitsubishi i 196 <0.01 BEV Porshe Cayenne S E-Hybrid 112 <0.01 PHEV Overall PEV Share of the LDV Market 0.72% * PHEV/BEV breakdown unknown.
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From page 166... ...
(% mpg) Audi Q5 Regular 3.0L V6 T S8 29.18 43.5 34.26 2.92 Baseline Q5 Hybrid 2.0L I4 T S8 30.40 39.9 34.05 2.94 0.6 -0.6 BMW 335i SS 3.0L V6 T S8 27.45 45.8 33.5 2.99 Baseline Active Hybrid 3 3.0L V6 T S8 32.70 46.41 37.71 2.65 -11.2 12.6 BMW 750LI SS 3.0L V6 T S8 24.07 40.14 29.36 3.41 Baseline Active Hybrid 7L 3.0L V6 T S8 28.21 43.13 33.41 2.99 -12.1 13.8 Infiniti Q60 FWD 3.5L V6 AV-S7 24.70 36.65 28.95 3.45 Baseline QX60 Hybrid FWD 2.5L I4 SC AV-S7 35.20 41.10 37.63 2.66 -23.1 30.0 Infiniti Q70 Regular 3.7L V6 A-S7 22.48 36.10 27.08 3.69 Baseline Q70 Hybrid 3.5L V6 A-S7 38.25 47.90 42.06 2.38 -35.6 55.3 Nissan Pathfinder 2WD 3.5L V6 AV 24.64 36.98 28.99 3.45 Baseline Pathfinder Hybrid 2WD 2.5L I4 SC AV 34.87 40.82 37.31 2.68 -22.3 28.7 Porsche Cayenne Regular 4.8L V8 A8 19.50 31.60 23.56 4.24 Baseline Cayenne Hybrid 3.0L V6 T SC A8 25.10 33.10 28.16 3.55 -16.3 19.5
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