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3 LEAD EXPOSURE OF SENSITIVE POPULATIONS
Pages 99-142

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From page 99...
... The conventional approach to identifying lead exposure in a population has been to attribute leac! intoxication to single sources of lead at high concentrations, such as leaded paint.
From page 100...
... The historical record of industrial lead production over the last 5,000 years is illustrated in Figure 3-1. The current production rate is approximately 3.4 million metric tons per year (U.S.
From page 102...
... About 150 million metric tons of lead has been released into the environment in the last 5,000 years. The latter value, total release, is probably closer to the total amount of lead pat to use, approximately 300 million metric tons, inasmuch as the element is indestructible ant]
From page 103...
... Emission of industrial lead aerosols to land and aquatic ecosystems is now predominant. It accounts for approximately 15-20% (202,000-263,000 metric tons/year)
From page 105...
... These include industrial lead from commercial wastes, smelter wastes, and mine tailings (each approximately 300,000 metric tons/year) ; fly ash (approximately 140,000 metric tons/year)
From page 107...
... of that lead, in even the most remote regions of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, is derived from releases of industrial lead from Canada and the United States. Those measurements are consistent with those in numerous other studies that have shown the pandemic scale of lead contamination, which has increased lead concentrations throughout the Northern Hemisphere by a factor of at least 10.
From page 109...
... SOU~C[-SPlCIF'C L"D [XPOSU12[ OF S[~lSlnV~ POPULATIONS This chapter presents a general picture of the common modes of human exposure to lead through leaded paint, air (which it enters from leaded gasoline and stationary emission) , dust and soil, tap water, the workplace, and miscellaneous sources.
From page 111...
... (D at 3 (D 85 _, , o CO 1 ,~ 3 ~ _ (I ~ ~ NIL o n \ \ t 1 , 0 ~ , , ~ -at_ Q 0 0 ~ 0 ~ ~: ID, 0 {L nit et 00 ON _4 6 & Ct a, E I · .
From page 112...
... Use as pigment accounted for most of the lead present in older paints. Pigment lead concentrations were high in paints marketed and used before the 1940s; fractions in the final dry film were up to approximately 50% (CDC, 19851.
From page 113...
... 0.5-5 years old live in the oldest housing. The percentages of housing with leaded paint by date of construction are pre-1940, 99%; 1940-1959, 70%; and 1959-1974, 20% (Pope, 19861.
From page 114...
... 114 it_ NNN~ ~ - I,,.
From page 115...
... . They have entailed multivariate regression analyses in which the size of the paint lead contributions to blood lead concentrations are calculated.
From page 118...
... (1987) reported that neither traditional nor modified methods of abating lead-based paint reduced the blood lead concentrations of children living in the residences.
From page 119...
... In closed spaces, such as garages and tunnels, air lead concentrations are well above those of open areas. Exhaust lead is discharged in such forms as halides and oxides, but these are eventually converted to the sulfate.
From page 120...
... short- and long-term effect of leaded gasoline in terms of decreases in blood lead concentrations due to the phasing out of leaded gasoline, projected to 1992. The estimates are presented in Table 3-5 for children 0.5-13 years old.
From page 122...
... Lead is present in dusts and soils at potentially toxic concentrations' primarily because of its use in leaded paint and its fallout from the air (Nriagu, 1978; Brunekreef, 1984; Duggan and Inskip, 1985; EPA, 1986a; ATSDR, 19881. It is often difficult to apportion lead content in soils and dusts accurately to either paint or atmospheric lead, but one or
From page 123...
... . In inner-city areas with tracts of old, deteriorating housing, dusts and soils in adjacent interior and exterior sites are heavily contaminated with leaded paint (Sayre et al., 1974; Charney et al., 1983; Chisolm et al., 1985; Clark et al., 1985; Bornschein et al., 1987; EPA, 1986a; ATSDR, 1988~.
From page 126...
... The children had substantial but not exclusive lead exposure through mobilizable leaded paint in poor-quality housing. The authors found that blood lead concentrations are influenced by the presence of lead in interior and exterior dust through hand pickup of lead in exploratory activity; dust lead is controlled by exterior dust (sampled as surface scrapings)
From page 127...
... (1985) have used linear and logistic regression analysis of declines in child blood lead concentration associated with phasing out of leaded gasoline to-estimate that 1.35 million children in 1989 and 1.25 million children in 1990 will have blood lead concentrations below 15 ~g/~L as a result of the control action.
From page 128...
... PhYsicochemical Sail Environmental Consitterations Tap-water lead concentrations are highly variable from house to house and tap to tap, because of differences in soldering, temperature, and water use. Any attempt to measure exposure or compliance with a target concentration must rest on an adequate sample size.
From page 129...
... at over 10 ~g/L, an action concentration promulgated by EPA (1991~. In public facilities that serve young children and other sensitive populations, such as kindergartens and elementary schools, additional exposure to lead in tap water can occur Kevin, 1986; ATSDR, 1988; EPA, l990c)
From page 130...
... The marked reductions in blood lead concentrations of water-consum
From page 131...
... (1989) reported lead intoxication blood lead concentrations ranging up to 45 ~g/~L in a toddler found to have been exposed to lead solely from tap water, which entered the home through new copper plumbing with lead-soldered fittings.
From page 132...
... 132 to US s:: et a' o U)
From page 133...
... ce 3 Cal o o m o o ._ o U)
From page 134...
... residents receive water from public supplies having lead concentrations above 20 ogre.
From page 135...
... (1985) to estimate that 240,000 children less than 6 years old will have blood lead concentrations over 15,ug/~L, in part because of exposure to lead in tap water.
From page 136...
... . Various studies have shown that dietary lead can contribute substantially to blood lead in complex ways that reflect the influence of the tap-water lead component, dietary habits, and individual differences in lead toxicokinetics (see, e.g., EPA, 1986a)
From page 137...
... They also estimated on the basis of foodlead concentration distribution profiles, adjustments for lead reduction in foods, intakes from other lead sources- that approximately 5% of the 21 million U.S. children less than 6 years old, or ~ million children,
From page 139...
... Use of these medicines is widespread and can result in serious lead poisoning in children. SUMMARY It is difficult to rank sources of lead exposure by their importance for health by such simple criteria as numbers of affecter!
From page 140...
... In addition, particle size, chemical species of lead, and soil and dust matrices are important modifiers of the soil and dust lead hazard eventually reflected in lead intake and absorption. Pathways of exposure to tap-water lead are multiple: direct drinking, beverages prepared with contaminated water, and foods cooked in leadcontaminated water.
From page 141...
... Virtually everyone has some exposure to dietary lead, and lead concentrations in food can be quite high. But lead in foods of older children and infants has been reduced through phasing out of leadsoldered cans for milk and fruit juices and reduced input into food crops.


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