Guidebook for Energy Facilities Compatibility with Airports and Airspace (2014) / Chapter Skim
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Pages 20-61
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From page 20... ...
20 Energy Technologies and Aviation Safety Impacts This chapter provides a review of research and industry trends related to the following energy technologies, which present certain aviation safety challenges: solar, wind, oil and gas drilling, conventional power plants, and electricity transmission. Each section pertains to a particular technology type, beginning with the context for examining aviation safety issues for each technology, along with the research objectives for this project.
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21 over glare from solar energy installations and its impact on pilots, air traffic controllers, and motorists. Glare from direct sunlight has been recognized for many years as a potential hazard for motorists and pilots.35,36,37 Reports citing NHTSA data estimate that solar glare causes nearly 200 fatalities and thousands of accidents involving motor vehicles each year.38 The FAA has reported that glare from direct sunlight contributed to nearly a dozen aviation accidents on average each year during an 11-year study.39 Glare occurs when sunlight causes a temporary visual impairment to an observer.
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22 To mitigate these risks, various federal, state, and municipal government codes and regulations seek to prevent harmful glare from solar energy installations.47 Additionally, the FAA recently announced that it would disallow any new solar installations near airports without a quantitative glare analysis, including an assessment of visual impacts. 3.1.3 How Is Glare Characterized?
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23 which provides a quantified assessment of the following information:48 • Time and place that glare will occur throughout the year for a prescribed solar installation • Potential effects on the human eye at locations where glare occurs • Estimate of the maximum annual energy produced by the solar energy system The SGHAT employs an interactive Google map where the user can quickly locate a site, draw an outline of the proposed PV array, and specify observer locations or paths. It automatically records latitude, longitude, and elevation through the Google interface, providing necessary information for sun position and vector calculations.
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24 One fundamental data source that is currently unavailable is the measurement of reflection from commercially available solar panels. Some manufacturers advertise the availability of anti-reflecting (A/R)
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25 who were aware of solar projects indicated that they had experienced glare while 74 percent did not. Of the pilots who did experience glare, 4 percent classified the glare as a "significant nuisance," 24 percent as a "moderate nuisance," and 72 percent as "not a nuisance." When asked whether they consider solar glare to be a safety concern for pilots, 12 percent said "yes," 45 percent said "no," 27 percent were "uncertain," and 15 percent did not respond.
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26 as viewed from the user-specified observation point relative to the specified PV array as a function of the time of day and day of the year. The color of the dots indicates the potential ocular hazard, which is impacted by the direct normal irradiance (DNI)
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27 ing PV modules and had to be moved every few weeks as the sun position changed. Table 3.1 shows alternative configurations using the same footprint of the PV array that were predicted to produce no glare.
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28 3.1.6 Lessons Learned Understanding of the potential impact of solar glare on airport sensitive receptors has expanded significantly over a short amount of time. When the FAA released the Solar Guide in November 2010, there were very few solar projects at airports and no reports of glare impacts.
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29 300 GW (including 54 GW of offshore wind) , as shown in Figure 3.12.51,52 A variety of incentives have catalyzed wind power growth, including tax credits, purchasing mandates by federal agencies, and state-level renewable energy portfolio standards (RPS)
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30 monopole tower (see Figure 3.13)
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31 Radars used for weather employ many of the same general techniques as radars used to detect aircraft. The key difference between them is that the primary objective of weather radar is to measure air density (relating to moisture content)
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32 • Homeland Defense -- Aerospace warning/control, air defense, support to law enforcement, etc. • Military Training -- Potential for degradation of performance of air traffic control and other radars used during flight training • Research, Development, Test and Evaluation -- Developmental and operational testing, and system certification • Maritime Patrol -- Coastal navigation, waterway safety, and search and rescue • Law Enforcement -- Collateral effects/chain-of-custody for local, state, federal, and tribal agencies • Critical Infrastructure Protection -- Nuclear security operations, continuity of government, etc.
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33 constituents have raised safety concerns about performing services near wind turbines due to potential impacts of turbulence including air ambulance63 and crop spraying.63,65,66 There have also been reports from recreational pilots about detecting turbulence downwind from operating wind turbines. Several studies offer guidance in determining the safest distance for aircraft to travel downwind of a wind turbine: • IFT&E Pilot Reports:67 During the Interagency Field Test and Evaluation (IFT&E)
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34 Both the FAA74,75,76 and United Kingdom (UK) Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)
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35 detailed data from the federally owned NAS radar systems.81 Sandia National Laboratories worked with participants from the wind energy industry to track weather conditions and gather data from WTGs in the test area, including individual turbine circumstances (e.g., rotation rate, blade angle, nacelle direction) as well as static turbine specifications before and during the tests.
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36 that have jurisdiction over radar systems is often part of obtaining regulatory approvals. As part of its hazard determination .
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37 When METs are erected at heights below 200 ft. AGL, they are not painted or lit in a manner that can be seen easily by pilots.
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38 • December 15, 2003 -- An Erickson SHA Glasair TD aircraft collided with an unmarked and unlighted MET during VMC conditions near Vansycle, Oregon. The aircraft was destroyed and both occupants sustained fatal injuries.
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39 search radars, a PD of 0.8 (80%) or better is considered satisfactory." • The remark on Section 91.119, "Minimum Safe Altitudes" that "provides that no person may operate an aircraft at an altitude of 500 [ft.]
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40 study scrutinizes the impact of wind turbines on (a) airport facilities; (b)
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41 the narrow reservoirs and parallel to the above-ground surface. The second advancement is expansion in hydraulic fracturing, a process where water, chemicals, and sand are injected into the shale to break it apart and release the oil and gas product.
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42 3.3.2 What Are the Impacts of Oil and Gas Drilling? Whether conventional or unconventional, drilling requires a number of similar facilities.
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43 develop and reclaim, and therefore are often reserved in place for future fracking operations. The infrastructure that is left in place on the well pad after construction is relatively low profile and non-intrusive.
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44 the well's development. Regardless of the reason, customary practice for flaring is to erect a temporary stack and direct the gas through the stack for combustion.
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45 exploring horizontal wells to tap oil and gas potential under airport facilities. The airport's lease approvals addressed existing and future facilities including runway expansion to the north.
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46 Figure 3.27. Airports located in the Marcellus Shale Play.
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47 Hazard Mitigation: One of the common assurances that projects must meet is Hazard Mitigation.97 Under this assurance, the design, construction, and operation of the project and related improvements (including fracking water ponds and wastewater management, drainage improvements, ditches, wetland mitigation, materials handling, landscaping, etc.) shall not create a hazardous wildlife attractant to the airport.
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48 opment, and approval of the oil and gas production plan, construction at individual well sites, and well closure and reclamation. 3.3.4 Case Study: Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW)
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49 The planning of the project started with the ALP. Airport zones were set up to organize the planning process.
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50 not to exceed more than 3 days. The sponsor may not start drilling operations until the initial ASDE operational monitoring and assessments have determined that no adverse operational effects have been observed from the drill rig.
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51 with the FAA necessary to efficiently review and determine potential impacts on airspace of a variety of temporary and permanent structures associated with drilling and how to successfully manage the impacts. 3.4 Power Plant Stacks and Cooling Towers 3.4.1 Research Context Amid all of the new energy technologies being developed, traditional combined-cycle steam power electricity generation, fueled by an abundance of natural gas, continues to play an important role in the country's baseline energy network.
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52 correlates to a larger mass flow and larger plume lateral dimensions. The larger lateral plume dimensions result in larger potential impact areas to aircraft when flying over a facility and their effects last longer when compared to the smaller diameter stacks with higher velocities where the potential duration is relatively small due to the smaller stack area.
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53 A second test was conducted at the Indigo Energy Facility near Palm Springs, California.104 This test included two planes, one equipped with a Data Acquisition System and the second with the ability to collect photographic documentation. Data were collected for cruising configurations that would be expected in this area.
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54 3.4.2.4 Modeling Potential Impacts -- MITRE Study There have been numerous studies conducted by consultants and government agencies to evaluate exhaust plumes and the potential hazard to aircraft. Recently, MITRE released its long awaited study for FAA on the effects of vertical plumes on aviation.106 The study included the development of a Plume Hazard Model to evaluate potential plume behavior from an exhaust stack along with the potential impact the plume could have on aircraft performance when flying over or near the exhaust stack.
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55 • Establish Turbulence categories and vertical acceleration and turbulence intensity for the plume velocity and potential impact to aircraft. • Establish upset criteria to determine if aircraft upset could occur.
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56 and reliable review of the plume assessment using computerbased modeling. The assessment should evaluate the height at which the plume velocity from the exhaust stack reaches the average vertical velocity criterion of 4.3 m/s along with the new critical plume velocity criterion of 10.6 m/s.
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57 extent practicable, pilots are strongly advised to avoid the airspace above, or in the proximity to such sites as power plants (nuclear power plants, hydroelectric, or coal) ; dams; refineries; industrial complexes; military facilities; and other similar facilities."115 This NOTAM was intended to protect power plants from potential security breaches by piloted aircraft, in response to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks.
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58 Hayward Executive Airport.
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59 frame and average between 50 and 180 ft. tall depending on the size of the electrical line being carried among other factors.119 However, transmission towers exist that are as tall as 1,100 ft.120 During the project review process, if the FAA is sufficiently notified, it may comment on potential effects of a proposed power line project and request consideration of alternatives to avoid a potential impact.
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60 listed as an obstruction to Runway 36 at Waterbury-Oxford Airport in Connecticut.121 3.5.4 Airspace Case Study: Texas Competitive Renewable Energy Zones (CREZ) The Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT)
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61 Figure 3.37. Horse Hollow wind farm southwest of Abilene.
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